THE  LIBRARY 

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OF  CALIFORNIA 

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The  Southeast  Cross,  Moiiasterl)oice.     From  O'Neill's  Crosses  of  Ami  ml  Ir<-land. 


Zbc  Croee 


In  Tradition,  History,  and  Art 


BY  THE 

REV.  WILLIAM  WOOD  SEYMOUR 


S/i7f  Cni.\\  dit)u  volvitiir  orbis 

MOTTO   OF   THE   CARTHUSIANS 


WITH  ILLUSTRATIONS 


G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 

NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 

Ube  1Finic(5crLiocl;cr  press 
1898 


Copyright,  1897 

BY 

G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 
Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 


•Cbc  Utnlchcvliotlicr  Iprces,  Wcw  JDocI: 


BV 

$52 


PUBLISHERS'  NOTE 

OWING  to  the  death  of  the  author,  the  Rev.  William  Wood  Sey- 
mour, shortly  after  the  completion  of  the  first  draft  of  the 
manuscript  of  his  work,  the  text  of  this  manuscript  did  not  receive  the 
advantage  of  the  author's  final  revision. 

The  author's  friend  and  literary  executor,  the  Rev.  Thomas  S. 
Drowne,  had  kindly  consented  to  give  his  personal  supervision  to  the 
book  while  it  was  passing  through  the  hands  of  the  printers,  but  in  con- 
nection with  his  own  long  illness-  (an  illness  which  resulted  in  his  death 
some  time  before  the  book  was  in  type)  it  did  not  prove  practicable  for 
him  to  give  attention  even  to  the  completion  of  the  proof-reading.  This 
work  has  been  done  with  as  much  care  as  was  practicable  in  the  case  of  a 
book  of  so  special  a  character  which  had  been  left  without  the  notes  or 
the  final  instructions  of  either  author  or  editor. 

It  had  seemed  both  to  the  literary  executor  and  to  the  publishers 
that  there  would  be  no  warrant  for  modifying  in  any  way  the  author's 
conclusions  or  expressions  of  opinion.  If  the  volume  were  to  be  brought 
before  the  public  in  accordance  with  the  author's  wish,  it  was  thought 
essential  that  the  author's  own  point  of  view  and  method  of  treatment 
should  be  adhered  to  without  change. 

It  was  further  decided  by  those  interested  in  the  undertaking  that 
it  was  better  to  take  the  risk  of  issuing  the  volume  with  certain  inade- 
quacies or  imperfections  rather  than  to  permit  to  be  thrown  away  the  labor 
to  which  the  author  had  devoted  years  of  his  life. 

yanuary  /,  iSgS. 


860'iS9 


CONTENTS. 


List  of  Illustrations 
Bibliography   ■ 


PART  I. 


PAGE 

ix 


I. — The  Cross  before  the   Christian   Era  and  in   Prehis 

toric  Times 

Section  i. — In  Africa 
Section  2. — In  Asia 
Section  3. — In  Europe 
Section  4. — In  America 

II. — Types  of  the  Cross    . 

III. — The  Early  Form  and  Use  of  the  Cross 
Section  i. — The  Cross  of  Punishment     . 
Section  2. — Voluntaiy  Crucifixion 
Section  3  — Crucifixion  of  Children  by  the  Jews    . 

IV. — Legends  of  the  Cross 

Section  i. — Its  Fabled  Antiquity  .         .  ■  • 

Section  2. — Traditions  Respecting    the    Wood    of    the 
Cross         ...... 

Section  3. — Miraculous  Appearances  of  the  Cross 

V. — The  True  Cross  and  its  Traditionary  History     . 

Section  i. — The  Discovery  of  the  Cross  by  S.  Helena 
Section  2. — Traditionary  Persons  at  the  Cross 

VI. — The  Title  of  the  Cross 

VII. — The  Doctrinal  Teaching  of  the  Crucifixion 


I 

2 

9 
22 

34 

46 

64 

64 

79 
81 

83 
83 

93 
103 

114 
114 
126 

134 
140 


VI 


Contents 
PART    II. 


I. — The  Cross  in  Early  Christian  Art 
II. — The  Crucifix  in  Early  Christian  Art 
III. — Monograms  of  Our  Lord    . 
IV. — Rood  Screens 
V. — Altar  and  Reliquary  Crosses 
VI. — Cruciform  Ornaments 
VII. — Processional  Crosses    . 
VIII. — The  Crosier  and  the  Pastoral  Staff 
IX. — Pectoral  and  Absolution  Crosses 
X. — Consecration  Crosses 
XI. — Spire  and  Gable  Crosses 
XII. — Standard  Crosses 
XIII. — Memorial  Crosses 
XIV. — Sanctuary  Crosses 
XV. — Preaching  Crosses 
XVI. — Market  Crosses     . 
XVII. — Landmark  Crosses 
XVIII. — Wayside,  Street,  and  Weeping  Crosses 
XIX. — Mortuary  and  Burial  Crosses 
XX. — Churchyard  Crosses 


151 
167 
188 

193 

205 
2 1 2 
226 
236 

250 

257 
261 
264 
275 
289 

293 
308 
321 
324 
331 
344 


PART  III. 

I. — Varieties  of  the  Cross 
II. — The  Cross  in  Heraldry   . 
III. — The  Cross  on  Coins 
I\". — The  Banner  of  the  Cross 
V. — ^The  Color  of  the  Cross  in  Art 
VI. — The  Ordeal  of  the  Cross 
VII. — The  Adoration  of  the  Cross  . 
VI 11. — Superstitions  Concerning  the  Cross 


353 
36a 

375 
383 
394 
396 

398 
404 


Contents 


vu 


CHAl'TEK 

PAGE 

IX.- 

-The  Si^^n  of  the  Cross    .... 

■     4'5 

Section     i. — Personal  U.se  of  the  Sign    . 

•     4'5 

Section    2. — In  Baptism 

.     422 

Section    3. — In  Confirmation 

.    426 

Section    4. — In  the  Holy  Eucharist 

•     429 

Section     5. — In  Benediction  . 

•     430 

Section    6. — In  Ordination 

•     43' 

Section     7. — In  Prayer    .... 

•     432 

Section    8. — In  Signatures 

•     433 

Section    9. — In  Touching  for  the  King's  Evi 

I        •         -435 

Section  10. — Power  of  the  Sign  over  Devils 

•     438 

X.- 

-Puritan  Objections  to  the  Cross    . 

•     441 

XI.- 

-The  Southern  Cross        .... 

•     451 

XII.- 

-Miscellaneous  Crosses     .... 

•     456 

Section  i. — Notewortliy  Crosses  in  History  a 

id  Nature,     456 

Section  2. — Ingenious  Crosses 

•     463 

Section  3. — Cross  and  Pile 

.     466 

Section  4. — Good-Friday  Cross  Buns 

■     467 

Section  5. — The  Crown  of  Thorns  . 

.     468 

Index 

•     475 

ILLUSTRATIONS 


Inscription  Siiowing  Different  Forms  of  the  Tau  Cross  ' 

Ra^ 

Anion-lva'  ........ 

Amon  "......... 

Soul,  Bearing  a  Crux  Ansata,  Returning  to  the  Body  ' 
Cross  upon  Heart  "....... 

Cross  on  Cake  ''  . 

Egyptian  Symbols  for  tlie  Five  Planets  '  . 

Buddha,  with  Cross  on  Breast  and  Hands' 

Different  Forms  of  the  Fylfot  Cross  "... 

Hera,  or  the  Assyrian  Venus  °  . 

Assyrian  Winged  Globe  "  . 

Sceptre  Knob  Found  at  Troy'  ..... 

Earthen  Vessels  Found  at  Castione "... 

Cylinder  Found  at  Villanova  "  . 

Heads  of  Cylinders  Found  at  Villanova  ' 

Accessory  Vase  Found  at  Golasecca  "... 

Ossuary  found  at  Golasecca  "      . 

Engraved  Gem  '  ....... 

Ancient  Gaulish  Coins  '°     . 

Cross,  with  the  Bust  of  Neptune,  Found  near  Paris  '° 

Cruciform  Druidical  Temple  "   . 

Sepulchral  Monument  at  New  Grange,  near  Drogheda  " 

Tablet  with  Cross,  in  Temple  at  Palenque,  Mexico  " 


'  From    Bosio's    La      Trionfaiiti;    e    Gloriosa 

Croce. 
'  From  Haslam's  The  Cross  and  the  Serpent. 
'  From  Sharpe's  The  History  of  Egypt. 
■*  From  Lundy's  Momwiental  Christianity. 
*  From  Lee's  Glossary  of  Liturgical  Terms. 
'  From  Layard's  Nineveh. 


'  From  Schliemann's  Troja. 

From  De  Mortillet's  La  Signe  de  la 
'  From    Walsh's    Essay   on    Ancient 

Medals,  and  Gems. 
'"  From  Gould's  Curious  Myths. 
"  From  Higgins's  Celtic  Druids. 
"^  From  Stephens's  Central  America. 


2 

3 
3 
4 
4 

5 
6 
6 

lO 

II 

i6 

i8 

21 

23 
24 
24 
25 
25 
27 
27 
28 

31 
33 
35 

Croix. 
Coins, 


Illustrations 


Cross  Found  at  Palenque  '         ....... 

Plan  of  Sepulchral  Chamber  at  Mitlan  " 

Section  of  Sepulchral  Chamber  at  Mitlan  "        .         .         .         . 

Plan  and  Section  of  Sepulchral  Chamber  at  Chila,  Mexico  '     . 

Emblems  Found  in  the  Mounds  in  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Valleys 

Temple  Mound,  Lovedale,  Kentucky  " 

Temple  Mound,  Marietta,  Ohio  "... 

Roman  Mound  near  Banwell,  Wiltshire,  England 

Isaac  Carrying  the  Wood  ^         .         .         ■  .       ■ 

Sacrifice  of  Isaac "...... 

The  Brazen  Serpent '  ..... 

The  Crucifixion  °         .....         . 

Window  in  Cathedral  at  Bourges'     . 
Crucifixion  b_\-  Impaling'   ..... 

Crucifi.xion  on  Stauros  '      . 
Crucifi.xion  by  One  Hand  and  Foot  " 
Crucifixion  of  S.  Andrew '  .         .         .         . 

Crucifixion  by  Tying'        ..... 

The  Crucified  Exposed  to  Wild  Beasts'    . 
Crucifixion  and  Burning'  ..... 

Crucifi.xion  Head  Downwards  '  .         .         . 

Crucifixion  with  Arms  and  Legs  Spread  ' 

Self-Crucifixion  of  Matthew  Lovat    . 

Adam  .Sends  Scth  to  Paradise  for  .Some  of  the  Oil  of  Mercy". 

The  Archangel   Michael   Gives  Seth  Three   Seeds  of  the  Tree  o 

Life' 

Scth  Buries  Adam  and  puts  the  Three  Seeds  of  the  Tree  of  Life 

under  his  Tongue  " .         .... 

The  Three  Seeds  .Spring  Up  ''    . 

The  Crucifixion  '...... 

The  Jews  Bury  the  Crosses'      .... 


'  From  Wilson's  Ahxico, 

*  From  Squier's  Serpeni  Symbol  in  America. 

"  From     Blake's     The     Cross,    Aueieii/  and 
Modern. 

*  From   Squier's  Antiquities  of    A'etv    York 

and  the  West. 
'  From  Jameson's  History  of  Our  Lord. 


'  From    Twining's    Symbols  of    Ear 

Mediicval  Christian  Art. 
''  From  Lipsius's  De  Cnice. 
'  From  B.-irtholimis's  De  Cruce  Chisli. 
'  From  Veklener's  The  Legendary  History  of 

the  Cross,   will)   Introduction    by    John 

Asliton. 


PAGR 
36 

38 
38 
38 

42 

43 
44 
45 
50 
54 
54 
54 
57 
65 
65 
67 

71 
72 

73 
73 
75 
76 
80 
84 

85 

86 
86 

87 
88 

ly   and 


Illustrations 


XI 


The  Empress  Helena  Setting  Forth  from  Constantino[)lc  in  Scarcli 

of  the  Cross  '  . 
The  Empress  Helena  Receiving  the  Cross  ' 
The  True  Cross  Restoring  a  Dead  Maid  to  Life ' 
A  Part  of  the  True  Cross  Placed  in  a  Church  by  the  Empress  Helena- 
Passion  Flower'  .... 

The  Vision  of  Constantine  " 
The  Labarum  '\ 

Medal  of  Constantine  "... 
Medal  of  Constantius  °       .         .         . 

« 

Coin  of  Ptolemy  '       .  .         .         . 

S.  Helena  in  Jerusalem  ^    . 

Discovery  of  the  Crosses  ' 

Test  of  the  True  Cross  '     . 

S.  Helena  Deposits  a  Portion  of  the  Cross  in  Jerusalem  ' 

S.  Veronica's  Napkin  at  S.  Peter's,  Rome  '       .         .         . 

The  Descent  from  the  Cross  °    . 

Early  Representation  of  the  Crucifixion  with  Thieves  "   . 

The  Title  of  the  Cross  "....... 

The  Crucifixion  (Ivory  Work  of  the  IXth  Century)  ' 

Sun  and  Moon  at  Crucifixion  (Ancient  Ivory)  " 

Angels  Round  Cross  (Duccio,  Siena)  "       .         .  .  . 

Angels  Attending  the  Crucifixion  (Pietro  Cavallini,  Assisi)  ° 

Adoration  of  the  Cross  (S.  Marco,  Florence)  °  . 

The  Cross  Imprinted  on  the  Body'  ..... 

Christ  Represented  as  Orpheus  '..... 

Triple  Cross  Representing  the  Second  Person  of  the  Trinity  ' 
Representation  of  Pan  Applied  to  Christ  as  the  Good  Shepherd 
Epitaph  from  the  Catacombs  '  . 
Coin  of  Crispus  '         .         .         ... 

First  Coin  with  Cross,  Issued  by  Galla  Placidia,  Vtli  Century 


89 
89 
91 
9' 
02 

04 

05 
07 
07 
08 
14 
15 
15 
'9 

27 
29 

31 
37 
41 
42 
43 
43 
45 
5> 
52 
53 
53 
55 
56 
57 


'  From    Fisher's   Aiitiipii/i,'s   tit   Stral/ord-on- 

Avon, 
'■*  From  Bosio's  La  Trionfante  e  Gioriosa  Croct'. 
'  From  Gretser's  De  Saiichi  Cruce. 
*  From  Veldener's  The  Legendary  Histery  of 

the    Cross,    with    Introduction    by   John 

Ashton. 


From  Harper's  Alaga^iite. 

From  Jameson's  History  of  Our  Lord. 

From    Twining's    Symbols   of  Early   and 

Mcdiaval  Christian  Art. 
From  Maitland's  Church  in  the  Catacombs. 


XI 1 


Illustrations 


Christ  Holding  a  Gemmed  Cross  '     . 

S.  Pudentiana,  from  Fresco  in  the  Church  of  S.  Pudentiana 

Mosaic  in  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  Rome ' 

Mosaic  in  the  Church  of  S.  Michael,  Ravenna  ' 

The  Transfiguration  '...... 

Cross  Surmounted  by  Crown  '  . 

Angel  Changing  Crown  of  Thorns  for  Real  Crown 

The  Lamb  as  a  Symbol  of  Christ.     In  the  Basilica  of 

Romc^     ........ 

The  Lamb  as  a  Symbol  of  Christ.     In  the  Church  of  SS. 

and  Damiano "  ..... 

Early  Form  of  Crucifix,  from  MS.  of  Vlth  Century 
Crucifix  Found  in  the  Catacomb  of  Pope  Julius  ° 
Hohenlohe  Siegmaringen  Crucifix  ^  . 
Back  of  Hohenlohe  Siegmaringen  Crucifix  " 
Early  Pectoral  Crucifix  '    . 
Cross  of  Lothario  (IXth  Century)  '  . 
Adam  at  the  Foot  of  the  Cross  ' 
Mary  at  the  Cross  *    . 

Anubis-Christos  '..... 
Identity  of  Heathen  and  Christian  Symbols  ' 
The  Labarum  '  . 

Monograms  of  the  Saviour  ''      .         .         . 
Monogram  of  the  Three  F.mblenis  Carried  in  the  Mysteries 
Various  Crosses  of  the  Greek  Form  ' 
Greek  and  Latin  Crosses  of  Various  Forms ' 
Monogram  in  the  Lapidarian  Gallery,  Rome  ' 
Mystic  Cross  '    . 

A  Cathedral  .Screen  "  .         .         .         . 

A  I'cU'ocliial  .Screen  "  . 


Peter's 
Cosma 


3° 

58 
6o 
62 
64 

65 
66 

69 

7' 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
80 
81 
88 
88 
88 
88 
89 
89 

9' 
91 
94 
96 


From     Bosio's    Za     Trionfantc    (    Ghriosa     ■■  I''rom   Didron's   Christian    It-oiwgraphy  ;   or 


Croce. 
'  From  Ciampini's  Vetera  Mommeiita. 
''  From  Jameson's  History  of  Our  Lord. 
•*  From  Jameson's  Lcgeinls  of  the  Madonna. 
'  From  King's  The  Gnostics. 
'  From  Jennings's     The   Rosicrucians,     Their 

liites  and  Mysteries. 


the    History    of    Christian     .Irt   in    the 

Middle    Ages. 
'  From  Maitland's  Church  in  the  Catacombs. 
'  F'rom   Pugin's    Treatise  on  Chancel  Screens 

and  Kood-Lofts. 


Illustrations 


xui 


Iconostasis  at  Tepekerman  '      . 

Marble  Screen  in  the  Church  of  the  Frairi,  Venice  " 

Screen  and  Rood-Loft,  Hospital,  Lubeck  ' 

Maximianus  Welcoming  Justinian  ' . 

Reliquary  of  Orvieto,  XlVth  Century  '     . 

Bronze  Crucifix,  Xllth  Century  '       .... 

Ciborium,  Byzantine,  End  of  XlVth  Century" 
Monstrance  of  Sedletz  Castle,  Bohemia,  XVth  Century 
Monstrance  °       .......  . 

Monstrance:  German  Example  of  the  X\'Ith  Century" 

Sceptre  Surmounted  by  the  Cross  V 

Crown  of  Charlemagne '...... 

English  Crown  ........ 

Crown  of  Austria  '....... 

Crown  of  Reccesvinthus,  Vllth  Century  " 

Brooch  of  Silver  Filagree  Work  (Date  Uncertain) '  . 

Crucifix  Made  from  an  Old  Spanish  Hilt  . 

Sword  Hilt,  XVHth  Century  * 

Dr.  Donne's  Seal  '....... 

S.  Augustine's  Interview  with  Ethelbert ". 

Processional  Cross  °   . 

Processional  Cross  '    . 

Processional  Cross  '    . 

Processional  Crosses  "...... 

Ancient  Processional  Cross,  Circa  1400  '"  . 

Crosier  "......... 

Crosier  °      ........  . 

Tau-Shaped  Pastoral  Staff  of  Carved  Ivory,  Limburg  ° 

Pastoral  Staff  " 

Pastoral  Staff  " 


197 
198 
200 
206 
208 
210 
213 
214 
215 
216 
216 
217 
218 
218 
219 
220 
222 
223 

22  '^ 

228 
229 
231 

233 
234 
237 
238 

239 
240 
241 


'  From  Neale's  Hiitory  of  the  Holy   Easlcrji 

ChurcJi. 
'  From   Pugin's    Treatise  on    Chancel  Screens 

and  Kood-Lofts. 
'  From  Ciampini's   Vetera  Moninienta. 
■*  From  Labarte's  Handbook  of  the  Arts  of  the 

Middle  Ai^es  and  Reftaissance. 
'  From    Wheatley's  Art    Work   in    Gold  and 

Silver. 


'  From  Lee's  Glossary  of  Liturgical  and  Ec- 
clesiastical Terms. 
'  From  Berry's  Heraldric  Encyclopedia. 
*  From  Walton's  Complete  Angler. 
'  From  an  old  print. 

'"  From  V^tf%  Manual  of  Gothic  Architecture. 
"  From    Glossary  of  7'erms    Used  in   British 
Heraldry. 


XIV 


Illustrations 


Pastoral  Staff  witli  Knob  '  .  .  .  . 

Forms  of  Pateressa  '' . 

Pastoral  Staff  of  S.  Boniface  '    . 

Cross  Worn  by  One  of  the  "  Seven  Chiefs  against 

B.C.  1 200  ' 

Cross  Worn  by  Samsi-Vul  IV.,  King  of  Assyria,  B 

Museum  '...... 

Mosaic  in  the  Oratory  of  S.  Venantius,  Rome  "■ 
Byzantine  Pectoral  Cross "  .         .         .         . 

Queen  Dagmar's  Cross  '     . 

Cross  of  the  Knights  Templars 

Exterior  Cross  '  ...... 

Consecration  Crosses  '..... 

Spire  Cross  "....... 

Crosses  on  Gables  "    . 

Front  of  Stone  at  Aberlemmo,  with  Cross  '" 

Crosses  in  Isle  of  Man  Bearing  Runic  Inscriptions  ' 

The  North  Cross,  Clonmacnoise  "      . 

The  Southeast  Cross,  Monasterboice  " 

Drumcliff  Cross  '"...... 

Geddington  Cross  "'   . 

The  Queen's  Cross,  near  Northampton  '"  . 

Waltham  Cross  ....... 

Waltham  Cross  "...... 

Abingdon  Cross  ...... 

Charing  Cross     ....... 

Frithstool,  Beverley  Minster  "   . 

S.  Paul's  Pulpit  Cross  " 


C   S- 


Thebes 


5.     B 


Circa 
ritish 


PAGE 
242 

250 

251 

252 

256 
258 

261 
262 
266 
268 
269 
271 
273 

2  So 
282 
283 
284 
286 
286 
290 
295 


'  I'rom  Rock's  Church  of  Our  Fathers.  *  From  Lee's  Glossary  of  I.ifiirgical  and  Ec- 
''  From  Neale's  IJistory  of  the  Holy  Eastern  clesiastkal  Terins. 

Church.  °  l'"rom    Parker's    Companion    to    Glossary  of 
'  From  Twiniiig's  Symbols  of  Early  and  Me-  'I'crms  Used  in  Gothic  .Architecture. 

diccval  Christian  Art.  '"  I' rem  Fergusson's  Kude  Stone  Monuments. 

^  From    Brock's     'J'he    Cross:    Heatluii    and  "  Vrom  0'Sei\\'&  Crosses  of  Ancient  /reland. 

Christian.  "  From   O'Neill's  Fine  Arts  of  .Ancient  Ire- 
'  From  CLimpiiii's  Vetera  Monimcnta.  land. 

'  From  Labarte's  llandhook  of  the  Arts  of  the  ''  I'rom  Brittoii's  Architectural  .Intiijuities. 

Middle  Ages  and  Renaissance.  "  I'rom  Holland's  Cruciana. 
■■  I'rom  Stephens's  Queen  Dagmar's  Cross. 


Illustrations 


XV 


S.  Paul's  Cross  '  ..... 

S.  Paul's  Cross,  Time  of  Latimer  ' 

Preaching  at  S.  Paul's  Cross  '     . 

Rercdos  in  S.  Paul's  ''.... 

Pulpit  Cross  at  Iron-Acton,  Gloucester 

Blackfriar's  Pulpit,  near  Hereford  '    . 

Gloucester  High  Cross  '     .         ... 

Market  Cross  at  Cheddar^ 

Cross  at  Chichester,  Sussex  '      . 

Winchester  Butter  Cross    .... 

Mercat  (Market)  Cross  as  Restored  in  1885 

Salisbury  Market  Cross       .... 

Cross  of  Stourhead  '  . 

Devizes  Market  Cross         .... 

The  High  Cross,  Formerly  in  the  Market-Place  at  Wells 

Cross  at  Inverary  '     . 

Tottenham  Cross        ..... 

Wayside  Cross  in  the  Alps  "... 

"  Ampney  Crucis,"  near  Cirencester  . 

Stone  Coffin  of  Llewellyn,  Prince  of  Wales.     I 

Stone  Coffins  with  Cross  on  Lid  '"     . 

Stone  Coffin-Lids  °     . 

Stone  Coffin-Lids  "     . 

Headstone  Cross  in  lona   .... 

Cross  on  Headstones  '".... 

Grecian  Headstones  "         .         .         .         . 

Head  and  Base  of  a  Monumental  Brass  Cross, 

Lincolnshire  "  .... 

Brass  Effigy  of  Thomas  Cranley,  Archbishop 

den  of  New  College  Chapel,  Oxford  " 

'  From  an  old  print. 
-  From  a  photograph. 

^  From  Pooley's  Old  Crosses  of  Gloucestershire 
*  From  Bvitton's  Architeclural  Antiquities. 
'  From  Arnold's  History  of  the  Cross  of  Edin- 
burgh. 
'  From  Pooley's  Old  Stone  Crosses  of  Somerset. 
'  From  Bishop's  Pictorial  Are  hi  teeture. 


n  Llanrwst  Church 


of  Dublin 


Grainthorpe  Church 


and  War 


PAGE 

304 
305 

309 

311 
312 

313 

315 
316 

317 
318 
325 

328 
329 
335 
336 
337 
338 
339 
339 
340 

341 

342 


'  From  Boutell's  Ch>-isiian  Monuments  in 
England  and  Wales. 

'"  From  Cutts's  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Se- 
pulchral Slabs  and  Crosses. 

"  From  Neale's  History  of  the  Holy  Eastern 
Church. 

'■■  From  Boutell's  Monumental  Brasses  of 
England. 


From  Holland's  Crucian 


XVI 


Illustrations 


Monumental  Effigy  of  a  Crusader  ' 

Inscriptions  in  Catacombs  " 

Cemetery  Cross  at  Saillans  (XVIth  Century) 

Cemeter}'-  Cross  at  Marcillac  '    . 

Cross  at  Georget  '      .         .         . 

Cross  Quartered  with  the  Four  Gospels.     From  a   Fresco  in   the 

Catacombs  ' 
Christ,  Armed  with  the   Cross   of   Resurrection,    Descending  into 

Limbo  ■■    . 
Lorraine  or  Jerusalem  Cross  ' 

Greek  Cross,  with  Double  Cross  Arms  (Xlth  Century)  ' 
Inhabited  Cross,  Florentine,  1491  ' 
Cross  of  S.  George 
Cross  Potent  '    . 
Jerusalem  Crosses 
Tau  Cross  " 
Saltire  Cross  ' 
Calvary  Cross  * 
Cross  Botone  ' 
Cross  Patonce  ' 
Cross  Fleury  ' 
Patriarchal  Cross  * 
Cross  of  S.  James 
Cross  Pommee  ^ 
Cross  Avellane  ' 
Cross  Pattee  ' 
Maltese  Cross  ' 
Cross  Moline  ' 
Cross  Milrine  ' 
Cross  Ancr^e  ' 
Cross  Barbae  ' 
Cross  Ancettdc  ' 
Pall  Cross  ' 


I-'rom  Cuttb's  Manual  for  the  Sliiiiy  of  St-     "  From  Di-ouyn's  Croix  de  Procession,  de  Ci- 

pulchral  Slabs  and  Crosses.  nietihrcs  cl  de  Carrefours. 

From  Kip's  Catacombs  of  Rome.  ■•  From  Diilioii's  Christian  Iconography. 

'  From  Newton's  Display  of  Heraldry. 


Illustrations 


XV 11 


Merchants'  Seals  ' 

Sculptured  Monograms  ' 

Roman  Quincunx  "     . 

Coin  of  Constantine  ' 

Coins  of  Constantius  * 

Coin  of  Nerva  " . 

Coin  of  Valentinian  " 

Coin  of  Gratian  ' 

Coin  of  Theodosius 

Coin  of  Justinian  ' 

Coin  of  Phocas  " 

Coin  of  Heraclius  '' 

Crosses  from  Anglo-Saxon  Coir 

Pennies  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  William  Ru 

Labarums  from  the  Catacombs  " 

Labarum  from  a  Coin  ' 

Coin  of  Constantine  " 

Coin  of  Justinian  *      . 

The  Carroccio  "  .         •         . 

Endicott  Cutting  the  Cross  from  the 

S.  George's  Flag 

Banner  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition 

The  Adoration  of  the  Cross  " 

The  Conversion  of  S.  Hubert  ' . 

S.  Eustace "         .  .         .         . 

Stigmata  of  S.  Francis  of  Assisi  ° 

The  Cross  as  a  Posture  in  Prayer  ° 

Power  of  the  Cross  over  Devils  ° 

Medal  of  Luther  '       .         .         . 

Coat  of  Arms  of  Luther  '  . 

Coat  of  Arms  of  Melanchthon  ' 


King's  Banner  ' 


I'AGE 

373 
373 
375 
376 
377 
37« 
378 
379 
379 
379 
380 
380 

381 
382 

383 
383 
384 
384 
386 

390 
391 
393 
398 
406 
407 
411 
433 
439 
443 
444 
444 


'  From  Newton's  Display  of  Ihraldry. 
'  From   l^he  Art  youynai. 
'  From  Gretser's  De  Saiicta  Cruce. 
*  From    Walsh's    Essay    on    Ancient     Coins, 
Alfdais,  and  Gems. 


'  From  Lee's  Glossary  of  Liturgical  and  Ec- 
clesiastical Terms. 
^  From  Hollaml's  Criiciana. 
'  Vxova  an  old  print. 

*  From  Jameson's  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art. 
'  From  Maitland's  Church  in  the  Catacombs. 


XVllI 


Illustrations 


The  Southern  Cross  ' 

Black  Cross  of  Abingdon  ' 

Magnified  Scales  of  the  Minnow  ' 

Cross-  or  Star-Spored  Fungus  ^ 

The  Cross  in  Flowers  ' 

Snow  Crystals  '  ... 

Crystallization  of  a  Tear-Drop  ' 

Croce  Angelica  di  S.  Tomasa  de  Aquinae  ' 

Acrostic  of  Raban  Maur  "... 


451 
458 
460 
460 
461 
462 
463 
463 
464 


'  From  Crovvther's  The  Stariy  Cross.  '  From  T/ie  Art  Jottrnal. 

2  From   Palmer  and   Crowquill's  Wanderings     ■■  From  Holland's  Crticiiuia. 

of  a  Pen  and  Pejicil.  From  Maur's  De  Laudihiis  Sanctir  Criicis. 


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Leipzig,  1737,  ^nd  often  since. 
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PART  1. 


THE  CROSS 

IN    TRADITION     HISTORY,    AND    ART 


CHAPTER   I 

THE    CROSS    BKFORK    THE    CHRISTIAN    ERA,    AM)    IX    PRE-HISI-()KIC 

TIMES 

Section  I. — In  Africa.     Section  2. — ///  Asia.     Section  j. — In  Europe. 
Section  ^. — In  America 


w 


HAT  is  now  called  the  Christian  religion  has  existed  among 
the  ancients,  and  was  not  absent  from  the  beginning  of  the 
human  race  until  Christ  came  in  the  flesh,  from  which  time  The  True,  i.e.,  the 

Christian,  Relig- 

the  true  religion,  which  existed  alread}',  began  to  be  ddlcd  ion  before  Christ. 
Christian."  ' 

These  words  of  S.  Augustine  are  the  keynote  of  this  chapter.  Its 
intention  is  to  show  that  among  other  traces  of  the  true  religion,  pre- 
served in  traditions,  rites,  and  symbols,  God  has  handed  down  through 
all  ages  a  prophetic  type  of  the  cardinal  truth  which  was  indissolubly 
connected  with,  and  not  only  revealed  in,  the  Atoning  Sacrifice. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  leading  truths  of  the  primeval  religion  im- 
parted to  man  by  his  Creator,  in  Paradise,  may  be  traced  through  the 
princi[5al  pagan  mythologies;  and  that  a  symbol  of  the  fundamental 
article  of  the  Christian  creed  and  hope  has  been  recognized  as  sacred 
in  the  very  earliest  records  of  antiquity,  acknowledged  as  holy  by 
nations  who  lived  long  before  the  Sacrifice  of  Calvary,  and  were  far 
removed  from  the  "  chosen  people,"  to  whom  were  committed  "  the 
oracles  of  God  "  ;  reverenced  in  all  ages,  and   by  nations  in  every  stage 

'  S.  Augustine,  Rclrc.cl.,  i.,  13. 


2  History  of  the  Cross 

of  ci\'ili7.ation  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest;  in  a  word,  tliat  God  never 

left  Himself  li'itlioiit  a  ivitiiess  among  men,  that  many  ' '  shall  come  from  the 

east  and  from  the  west,  from  the  north  and  from  the  south, 

The  Leading 

Point,  "Atone-      and  shall  sit  down  with  Abraham  and   Isaac  and  Jacob  in 

ment," -Universal.  ^  ^^       ,    , ,  ,     ^j,,    ■      r  i  i  i  i 

the  kingdom  ot  God.  1  his  tact  has  been  almost  unnoted. 
And  yet  it  is  universal.  In  every  kind  of  relic  which  time  has  spared,  it 
is  clearly  to  be  read.  It  is  graven  on  rocks  and  monoliths,  painted  upon 
the  walls  of  temples  and  tombs,  enamelled  upon  vases  and  sepulchral 
urns,  stamped  upon  coins  and  medals,  moulded  in  ornaments  and 
amulets,  used  as  a  talisman  upon  the  humble  hearth,  and  traced  in  the 
plans  of  the  dwelling-places  of  the  Deity,  whether  subterranean  or  super- 

terranean,  whether  formed  in 
the  earliest  mounds  and  rudest 
caverns  of  the  rock,  or  in  the 
ornate  and  grand  cathedrals  and 
minsters  which  the  piety  and 
skill  of  the  Middle  Ages  have 
bequeathed  to  our  times. 

Section  i.    In  Africa, — Let 

us  examine  first  the  testimony 

of    Egypt,    the   mother  of    art 

and  of  civilization,  a  land  which 

traced     its     pater- 

Cross  in  Egypt,  . 

mty  directl)-  to 
Menes  or  Mizraim,  the  son  of 
Ilain,  the  son  of  Noah.  Here, 
unchanged  for  thousands  of 
}-ears,  we  find  among  her  most 
sacred  hieroglyphics  the  cross  in 
various  forms.  The  simplest, 
with  four  arms  of  equal  length 
placed  erect,  +.  "''  1''^'-'  'i"  X  ; 
but  the  one  known  sjiecially  as  the  "  Cross  of  Egypt,"  or  the  Tau  cross, 
is  shai)ed  like  tin-  letter  T,  often  with  a  circle  or  ovoid  above  it. 
Yet    this    mystical   symbol   was  not    peculiar  to  this  country,    but   was 


Inscription  showing  tliffercnt  forms  of  tlie    i'au  Cross. 
From  IJosio's  /(/  Trioitfanti:  €  Gloriosa  Croce. 


.S.  Luke  xiii.,  2y. 


Before  the  Christian  Era 


The  Crux 
Ansata. 


reverenced  as  "  the  hidden  wisdom  "  amcMiL;  the  Chaldeans,  I'lux-nicians, 
Mexicans,  and  every  ancient  people  in  both  hemispheres. 

In  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  the  cross  has  been  variously  interpreted. 
When  with  four  equal  arms,  sometimes  formed  of  serpents,  it  has  been 
assumed  to  be  an  emblem  of  the  four  elements.  When  „^  interpre- 
composcd  of  two  or  four  sceptres  with  a  circle  at  the  point  tation. 

of  intersection  it  is  said  to  indicate  "  di\'iiie  potentiality."  The  simi)le 
cross  has  been  interpreted  as  meaning  "  support,"  or  "  Saviour,"  some 
times  "  avenger,"  '  and  "  protective  power  "  ";  but  when  the  circle,  the 
emblem  of  eternity,  is  placed  upon  it,  forming  the  crux  an- 
sata, its  signification,  which  also  is  implied  often  in  the  sim- 
pler forms  of  the  cross,  is  "  Life  to  come."  To  this  interpretation  tlie 
early  Christian  historians  bear  witness,  and  their 
statement  has  been  confirmed  by  modern  sav- 
ants.' The  crux  aiisa/a.there- 
fore,  is  the  inseparable  ac- 
companiment of  the  chief 
triad  of  the  P^gyptian  deities, 
Ra,  Amon-Ra,  and  Anion, 
who  are  represented  as  hold- 
ing in  one  hand  the  crook, 
or  crosier-like  staff,  the  sym- 
iif  {^^    \  bol    of     power,    peace,     and 

Ti/  '/    V  1  purity,  and  in  the  other  the 

sacred  Tau."  '  It  is  very 
significant  that  the  second 
person,    Amon-Ra,  is  gener- 


Amon-Ra. 


Ra. 


ally  represented  as  seated  up-  From  Haslam's  r/ie  Cross., mi 

The  Serpent. 


From  Haslam's  The  Cross    o\\    a    throne,     wearing    the 

e    erpoi  .  Pharaoh  crown,   with   outstretched   arms  offering 

to  his  worshipper  the  cross  and  the  crosier,  i.e., 

eternal  life  and  peace.     The  ancient  Egyptians  believed  that  he  had  two 


'  Champollion,  Pre'eis  du  Systeme  I/ierog.,  torn,  ii,,  iios.  277,  34S,  19I. 

'  Sup.  Eneyclop.  Brit.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  66,  no.  108. 

'  Rufinus,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  39  ;  Sozomen,  lib.  iii.,  c.ip.  15,  etc.  ;  Young,  Reeent  Discoveries 
in  Hieroglyphics,  p.  156;  Champollion,  Precis,  etc.,  277;  I.ayard.  A'ineveh,  vol.  ii.,  p.  213. 
For  another  interpretation,  considering  the  circle  as  the  apple,  see  infra  note,  p.  S. 

•"  Wilkinson,  Ancient  Egyptians,  vol.  ii.,  ]>.  2S3. 


History  of  the  Cross 


natures,  divine  and  human,  that  he  was  their  defender  against  evil,  and 
also  the  inspirer  of  counsel  and  wisdom.  Nor  is  the  crux  ciiisata  con- 
fined to  the  superior  deities;  the  inferior  also  fretjuently 
bear  it.  ¥or  instance,  we  find  the  goddess  of  Truth  pre- 
senting it  to  the  figure  of  the  Sun,  as  if  intimating  that 
life — of  which  the  sun  is  tiie  source — and  truth  are  eternal. 
The  cntx  a?isata  is  placed,  to  indicate  the  ever- 
li\-ing  spirit,  on  tombs  and  sarcophagi.  Some- 
times it  is  in  the  talons  of  a  conventional  figure, 
representing  the  soul,  bearing  a  human  head  and 
the  body  of  a  bird,  hovering  over,  and  protecting 
the  body  of  the  departed.  The  deities  are  fre- 
qucntl}-  depicted  holding  the  sacred  Tau  in  their 
mouths,'  or  presenting  or  receiving  it  from  the 
lips  of  a  dying  man,'  who  is  often  lying  on  a  lion- 
shaped  couch.' 

A    most    decisive   proof    of    the    meaning    at- 
tached   to    this  hierogram  was  given  at  the  de- 
,T    ,    '"°'!^,    r.  struction    of    the   Serapeum    at    Alexandria,    the 

from  Haslam  s  Tkt'  Cross 

and  thi  Serpent.  shrine  of    the  gigantic  emerald,  or  glass,   statue 

of  Serapis,  the  god  of  healing, which 
Crux  Ansata  in     had     been     brought,      by 

the  Temple  of  ^ 

Serapis.  Order    of    Ptolemy    Soter, 

from  Sinope  on  the  southern  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea  (M.C.  293),  and  re- 
erected  within  the  labyrinth  on  the 
banks  of  Lake  Moeris.  U[)on  this  idol, 
and  upon  the  walls  of  the  temple,  was 
engriived  the  (Viix  aiisaia.  Theodosius 
destroyed  it  (A.  I).  3891,  des[nte  the 
earnest  prayers  of  the  Egyptian  priests 
for  its  preservation,  because  it  was  the 

'  As  a  passport  for  the  soul.  That  the  soul  was  exhaled  from  the  mouth  of  the  (lying,  is  a 
superstition  retained  from  the  time  of  the  ancients  to  the  present  clay.  It  was  believed  among 
the  common  people  in  the  last  century  that  the  soul  could  be  seen,  in  semblance  of  a  light-blue 
smoke,  passing  from  the  lips.  Hogarth,  it  will  be  remembered,  in  his  last  painting,  represents 
Time  prone  on  his  back  exhaling  a  puff  of  breath  that  curls  from  his  mouth  bearing  the  word 
Finis.  ■  Sir  R.  Ker  Porter,   Travels,    vol.  ii.,  p.  415. 

'  .Sharpe,   Voeabulnry  of  Egyptian  7/ierog/iplis,  no.  S33. 


Soul.  Ijcaring  a  Crux  .\nsat;i,  returning  tt) 
the  body. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  5 

symbol  of  tlicir  t^^od,  and  c_)f  "  Life  to  come.  "  Some  Christians  wlio  muler- 
stood  the  ML;y|>ti,in  hicroLjlyphics  conliiiiied  tiu'  intei-pretation,  and  this, 
together  with  a  traditinn  that  when  this  fi^aire  of  tile  cross  shoidd 
appear  their  relis^iDn  would  come  to  an  end,  induced  many  of  the  jjagans 
to  embrace  Christianity.'  Not  only  the  priests,  who  were  intelli^reiit, 
were  converted,  but  we  are  told  that  frcui  e\'ery  house  the  bust  of 
Serapis  was  removed  and  the  cross  substituted.''' 

The  Christians  not  only  accepted  the  crux  ausnta  as  the  symbol  of 
their  faith,  but  used  it  and  the  Tau  in  place  of  the  Latin  and  Greek 
cresses    in    their    churches    and    elsewhere.      Besides,    in    a 

The  Crux  Ansata 

Christian  inscription  at  Phile  may  be  seen  both  the  Maltese  Adopted  by 

,  Christians. 

and    Egyptian   crosses.      \\\  the  cluirch   of  the  cemetery  of 
El-Khargeh  in  the  Great  Oasis  are  other  examples."     I-l\-en  in  the  desert 
to  the  east  of  the  Nile  is  a  church  with  the  following  inscription: 

KAeO-f^AIKH+EKKAH^i^CIA. 

At  Edfou  also,  the  cross  is  painted  upon  the  walls,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion, perhaps,  of  later  date,  "  The  Cross  of  the  Christians."  ' 

As  among  many  other  nations,  the  cross  was  worn  as  an  amulet  by 
the  Egyptians.  Sometimes  the  chief  ornament  of  the  necklace  was  a 
little  image  of  Amon-Ra  \\\\.\\  a  Tau  cross  upon  the  back; 

Cross  Worn 

sometimes  the  emblem  was  tattooed  or  painted   upon   the       apparently  as 

1       1   •     1  1-1  •       •  r  1    )  ^"  Amulet. 

arms  and   thighs,  as  represented  m  the  paintings   tound  by 
Belzoni  in  the  tombs  of  Thebes. 

J  A  significant  symbol  is  the  long  cross  surmounting  a  heart. 

It  means  "  good,"  or"  goodness."      Upon  the  front  of  many 
of    the    houses    in    Thebes    and     Memphis    it   is        cross  surmount- 
depicted,  intimating,  "  This  is  the  abode  of  the  ingaHeart. 

Cross  upon   good."     Pharisaism,   it  seems,  e.xisted  long  before  the  ad\-ent 
Heart.        ^  *= 

of  Him  whose  type  we  are  considering. 

'Socrates,  Hist.  Eccles.,  lib.  v.,  cap.  17;  Sozomen,  lib.  viii..  cap.  16;  Rufinus,  lib.  i!., 
cap.  29. 

'  Fleiiry,  Eccles.  Hist.,  xix.,  2g. 

*  S.  Baring-Gould,  Curious  .'\fyl/is  of  t/ic  Middle  Ages,  vol.  ii.,  p.  93  ;  Hoskin.  I'isit  lo  the 
Great  Oasis,  plate  xii.  See  Wilkinson's  Ancient  Egyptians,  vol.  ii.,  pp,  2S3-2S4,  fur  use  of 
Tau  cross  in  Christian  monuments. 

■*  Bradford,  American  Atitiquities,  p.  392. 


® 


6  History  of  the  Cross 

The  sacred  bulls  and  reptiles  were  fed  upon  a  cake  composed  of  flour, 
honey,  and  milk,  or  oil.     All  symbolical  materials,  upon  which  was  im- 
pressed   a   cross    pattec ;    and   on   the    higher 

Cross  on  Cake.  ,  ,   . 

festivals  the  priests  and  worshippers  partook 
of  it.'  This  crossed  cake  was  the  jiieroglyph  for  "  civilized 
land,"  but  in  that  rude  character  there  was  a  deeper  mysti-    Cross  on  Cake. 

If  i.      T)  1-3  From  Hasl.im's 

cal  reference  to  Paradise.  j.;,^  ^ross  ami 

The    invention  of    the    astronomical  signs  is  generally      '''"'  •^^'y*'''"'- 
attributed  to   Egypt,   but  those  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks,    Babylon- 
.  ,  .    ,       ians,  Druids,  the  natives  of  India  and  of  America,  so  closely 

Astronomical  '  J 

^'S"^-  resemble  them  that  they  indicate  a  common  origin.      Fi\-e 

of  these  characters  are  plainly  composed  of  the  circle,  or  parts  of  it,  and 
the  cross : 

*     ?     ^     ?     ^ 

Egyptian  Symbols  for  the  Five  Planets.     From  Haslam's    'J'hc  Cross  anJ  tlw  Serpent. 

while  that  of  the  earth,  the  circle  filled  with  the  cross,  is  significant.  In 
these  hieratic  monograms  the  position  of  the  cross  varies,  sometimes 
being  placed  above,  at  others  below  or  at  the  side  of  the  disc,  hence  it 
has  been  supposed  that  the  position  not  only  "  distinguished  one  spliere 
from  another,  but  also  indicated  the  degree  of  happiness  in  each."' 
The  signs  of  Jupiter,  Venus,  and  Mercury  are  sometimes  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  corresponding  Egyptian  deities.  Ra.  or  Osiris,  Isis,  and 
Hermes.  The  monogram  of  the  last  is  a  variation  of  the  caduceus  or 
mystic  wand  of  Mercury,  and,  according  to  Kircher,  was  originally  the 
sacred  Tau,  to  which  was  added  the  cross  and  crescent,  modified  after- 
wards b\-  Thoth,  the  Egyptian   Mercury,  into  serpents  and  wings,  syin- 

'  .An  evident  type  of  the  lOucharist.  Similar  types  were  found  in  .\sia  and  in  .\merica, 
both  on  the  North  and  South  continents.     See  ch.  ii. 

'  The  tradition  of  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise  flowing  towards  the  cardinal  points,  thus 
dividing  the  land  cruciformly  has  been  handed  down  in  many  mythologies.  In  the  Sineru  of 
the  Huddhist,  grows  the  four-limbed  Damba-tree,  or  tree  of  life,  and  from  its  roots  gush  forth 
four  sacred  streams  northward,  southward,  eastward,  and  westward  ;  from  the  four  sides  of  the 
golden  Mount  Meru  in  the  Sl.avratta.  or  "celestial  earth"  of  the  Hindoo,  proceed  the  four 
primeval  rivers.  The  Tien-Chan,  or  "  celestial  mountain  land  "  of  the  Chinese  and  Tartars,  is 
divided  by  the  four  overllowing  streams  of  Tycliin,  or  Immortality,  and  through  Asgard,  the 
abode  of  happiness  of  the  Scandinavians,  flowed  four  rivers  of  milk. 

'  EdinburgJi  A'e-'.,  vol.  cxxxi.,  p.  23S. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  7 

bolizing  the  power  of  the  crossover  the  devil.'  I  lence  ji;i,  called  the  TaiUic 
emblem,"  is  the  sign  of  power,  and  Mercury  always  bears  the  caduceus 
when  conducting  a  soul  to  Hades,  for  by  its  touch  the  god  could  release 
the  spirit  of  the  dying  or  recall  the  dead  to  life;  like  the  cross,  also,  it 
had  power  over  enmity.  By  its  influence,  enemies  found  their  hatred 
changed  to  love. 

How  to  account  for  the  peculiar  shape  of  the  crttx  ansata  passes  our 
power.  Its  universality — it  is  found  in  every  quarter  of  tlic  earth — 
attests  the  reverence  in  which   it  was  held  by  the  primeval 

1  T.       •  /-  1    1  r  ..  1  ^'■"''    Ansata. 

nations,  biit  as  l-iaring-Lioiikl  confesses,  no  one  knows, 
and  probably  no  one  ever  will  know,  what  originated  this  sign  and  gave 
it  such  significance."  '  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  T  represents  a 
table  or  an  altar,  and  the  ovoid  symbolizes  a  vase,'  or  an  egg  '  upon  that 
altar,  others  suppose  it  to  be  a  mere  handle,  because  it  is  often  so  used, 
but  not  always.  On  a  Bab\donian  cylinder  the  god  holds  the  sacred 
emblem  by  the  long  arm,  whilst  a  priest  offers  him  a  gazelle. °  On  a  stele 
from  Khorsabad  the  two  parts  are  disjoined, — an  eagle-headed  man  holds 
the  circle  in  his  right  and  the  Tau  in  his  left  hand.'  This  was  af^.xed  to 
the  end  of  the  pole  of  a  war  chariot,  doubtless  as  a  talisman. 

An  able  writer  suggests  that  in  the  first  instance  the  crux  ansata  was 
intended  to  denote  the  solar  and  terrestrial  spheres  respectively,  and, 
subsequently,  when  princes  and  conquerors  had  conceived  the  exalted 
idea  of  ruling  by  divine  right,    or  of  pretending  a  divine  origin,   each 

'  Kircher,  Hicrog.,  lib.  iv.,  20,  quoted  in  Deane's  Serpent  IVms/iip,  p.  133.  "The 
caduceus  in  its  present  form  represents  a  modification  of  the  universal  Ophite  hierogram,  em- 
blematic of  the  Trinity  ;  the  circle  for  light,  the  serpents  for  wisdom,  and  the  wings  for  life  ; 
signs  corresponding  to  the  title  Trismegistus,  or  thrice  great  Hermes."  Haslam,  Cross  and 
Serpent,  p.  173. 

"^  The  monogram  of  the  Egyptian  Tau  is  formed  of  three  Taus  thus,  K  -I  >  similar  to  the 
Masonic  jewel  of  the  Royal  Arch.  Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities,  vol.  vi.,  p.  68.  Three  Taus 
also  compose  the  symbol  of  the  Scandinavian  Teutates. 

^  Curious  Myths,  vol.  ii.,  p.  94. 

■*  Ungarelli,  Interpreiat.   Oheliscorum  Urbis,  p.  5. 

'  Dognee,  Les  Synibvles  Antiques-V CEuf.  The  "  Mundane  egg  "  is  often  represented  with  a 
horizontal  line  passing  through  the  middle  dividing  it  into  two  cones.  The  space  outside  and 
around  the  figure  symbolizes  heaven,  boundless  as  is  the  universe  ;  "  the  space  within  the  upper 
cone,  above  the  line  which  represents  the  earth's  surface  was  the  KozAos  or  coelus,  the  hollow 
vault,  'the  fertile  womb  of  all  teeming  nature'  .  .  .  and  the  space  below  the  line  and 
■within  the  lower  cone  was  the  region  of  fire,  the  abode  of  the  mysterious  spirits."  Haslam, 
Cross  and  Serpent,  p.  72. 

'  Curious  Myths,  vol.  ii.,  p.  q6. 

'  Botla,  Mon.  de  Xineve,  vol.  ii,,  pi.  158. 


8  History  of  the  Cross 

adopted  the  circle,  and,  associating  with  it  the  equally  expressive  cross, 
the  two  conjoined  thus  became  emblematical  of  dominion;  and  this 
symbol  of  royalty  has  been  perpetuated  to  our  day  by  e\-ery  Christian 
potentate  in  Europe,  whose  coronation  orb  surmounted  by  a  pectoral 
cross  is  nothing  more  than  the  embodiment  of  the  o'lix  aiisa/a.' 

Kircher  menti-ms  a  curious  tradition   that   Thoth   recei\x-d  the  sign 

from   which  he  formed  the  crux  aiisafa  from  tlie  patriarchs.      "  It  was 

received  bv  Moses  from  Shem,  who  received  it  from  Noah, 

Tradition  of  its 

Transmission       who  rcccivcd  it  from   Enoch,  who  received   it   from  Seth, 

from  Angels. 

who  received  it  from  Adam,  who  received  it  from  the  angel 
Raziel,^  who  gave  it  to  our  first  father  as  a  talisman  of  great  power 
against  demons,  etc.  (Abeneph)." 

McCulloch,  quoting  the  abo\'e,  inquires  :  "  Who  is  '  Abeneph  '  ?  If 
a  Jew  or  a  Mahometan,  and  his  name  would  give  color  to  that  opinion, 
then  his  testiinon}-  would  be  of  great  value  as  to  the  mysterious  significa- 
tion of  the  cross  in  very  ancient  times.  It  is  not  likely  that  a  follower 
of  Judaism,  or  Islam,  would  invent  a  tradition  honoring  a  Christian 
symbol."  ' 

From  Egypt  the  reverence  for  the  cross  doubtless  spread  throughout 
the  other  parts  of  Africa,  but,  owing  to  the  low  state  of  cis'ilization,  we 
must  not  look  for  monumental  evidence,  but  to  traditionary  usages  pre- 
served to  the  present  day,  for  traces  of  the  ancient  use  of  the  hierogram. 
Nor  do  we  look  in  vain  ;  although  the  degraded  people  have  forgotten 
the  meaning  of  the  symbol,  yet  they  have  religiousl}-  preserved  it  because 
it  has  been  transmitted  from  their  ancestors. 

'  Etiinbitri^h  Rt7\^  vol.  cxxxi.,  p.  232.  For  obvious  reasons  the  ]>liallic  tlieory  is  not  dis- 
cussed. Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson  declares  that  there  is  no  ground  in  its  favor  ;  true  the  Egypt- 
ian word  signifying  "  life  "  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  Yoni  1  ingam  of  the  Hindoos,  but  in  Kgypt 
the  Tau  was  the  symbol  of  purity,  the  greatest  gift  of  God  to  man.  Ancient  Ei^yptiaus^  vol.  ii., 
p.  283.  S.  Uaring-Gould  pronounces  the  theory  "  Monstrous  and  devoid  of  evidence."  Cu'ious 
Myths,  vol.  ii.,  p.  93  and  App.  A.  On  the  Rosetta  stone  it  is  used  to  translate  the  title 
alavofiioZ  given  to  Ptolemy  Epiphanius.  Ibid.,  |>.  92.  For  the  contrary  opinion  con,sult  Cox, 
Aryan  Mythology,  App.  C.  Nor  is  the  Tau  the  Nile  key  ;  that  is  of  a  different  shape,  and 
Nilus  is  of  all  the  gods  the  least  often  represented  with   it   in  his  hantl. — Wilkinson,  vol.  iv., 

P-  341- 

''  Raziel,  according  to  the  Rabbins,  was  the  angel  who  instructed  Adam  in  the  Cabbala,  or 
oral  law,  or  traditions  of  the  Jews.  S.  Baring-Gould  says,  it  was  related  by  the  Arabian 
Philosopher,  Ibn-ephi,  that  the  circle  signifies  the  api)le,  and  thus  the  Carthusian  emblem  which 
bears  the  motto,  "  Stat  crnx  duni  volvitur  ori'is''  is  in  reality  the  mystic  symbol  of  Adam — a 
mound  and  cross — the  crux  ansata  or  life  out  of  death. — Legends  of  the  Old  Testament,  p.  54. 

'  McCulloch,  Researches  among  the  American  Aborigines,  p.  335. 


Before  the  Christian  lira  9 

At  Susa,  in  Abyssinia,  anions^  otlicr  i-cliyious  rites,  tiic  natives  pluns^c 
a  cross  in  the  Iviver  Gitche.  Tliis  is  tlie  ciistoni  among  all  the  (jalla 
tribes,  but  fur  whieh  they  can  assign  no  other  reason  tlian  crossin 

that  it  iiad  been  haiuled  ilown  from  their  forefathers.'  Abyssinia. 

The  Kabyle  women,  although  Moh.imnietlans,  tattoo  a  cross  between 
tlicir  eyes.  No  deNout  Arab,  althdugh  professing  the  same  faith,  will 
marry  one  of  them  until  the  sign  is  obliterated  by  a  corrosive  liiiuiil.' 

In  Wanyamwizi,  or  the  Land  of  the  Moon,  the  inhabitants  decorate 
their  walls  with  crosses  and  serpent-like  ornamentations  painted  with 
ashes  and  red  and  black  clay.      The  Moslem  companions  of  ,    n    .    i 

I  In  Central 

Burton  dechired  them   to  be   idolatrous,  but  the  natives  as-  Africa, 

serted  that  they  paid  them  no  worship,  yet  were  unable  to  tell  the 
origin  of  the  custom." 

At  a  period  far  remote,  before  the  foundations  of  Carthage  were 
laid,  a  Berber  nation,  now  called  the  \^uaricks,  overspread  the  desert, 
and  conquered  the  oases  and  mines.  This  terrible  peojjle  are  yet  the 
scourge  of  the  peaceful  farmer  and  the  passing  caravan.  They  camp  in 
leather  tents;  they  are  armed  with  lance  and  sword,  and  with  shields,  on 
which  is  painted  the  image  of  a  cross.  .  .  .  They  established  a  line 
of  kingdoms  from  the  Niger  to  the  Nile,  in  tlie  border  land  between  the 
Sahara  and  the  parallel  io°  N.  Timbuctoo,  Haoussa,  Bornow,  Baghirmi, 
Waday,  Dorfur,  antl  Kordofan  were  the  names  of  these  kingdoms;  in 
all  of  them  Islam  is  now  the  religion  of  the  state."  * 

Section  2.  In  Asia. — Leaving  Africa,  and  proceeding  to  Asia,  we 
find,  in  India,  the  cross  bearing  the  same  meaning  as  in  Egypt.  When 
with  four  equal  arms  it  signifies  the  four  elements,  which  crossinAsia 
the  Hindoos  consider  as  eternal,  and   the  component  parts  India, 

of  all  things.  The  gods,  the  soul  of  man,  antl  the  life  of  animated 
nature  they  suppose  to  be  generated  from  them.  Hence  their  doctrine 
that  nothing  will  be  annihilated,  but  only  changed — souls  by  transmigra- 
tion, matter  by  transmutation:  and  therefore  Siva,  the  Destroyer,  also 
the  Preserver,  the  deity  who  presides  over  the  elements,  is  represented 

'  Harris,  highlands  of  Ethiopia,  vol.  iii.,  p.  79. 

*  Perry,  Carthage  and  Tunis,  p.  274.  There  is  a  tradition  in  tliis  tribe  that  when  1200 
years  liave  passed  since  the  flight  of  Mahoinet  the  religion  of  .Side  Aissa  (Jesus  Chiist)  will 
be  restored. — C.  E.  Oakley  at  British  .Soc.  Evang.  of  the  East,  April,  1864. 

^  R.  F.  Burton,  Lake  Region  of  Central  Africa,  pp.  222,  297. 

*  Winwood  Reade,  Martvrdom  of  Man,  p.  2S5. 


lO 


History  of  the  Cross 


with  a  cross  upon  his  breast.     The  cross  is  also  found  in  the  hands  of 
Siva,    Brahma,  \'ishnu,  and  Tvashtri.     When  with  a  wheel  in  the  centre 

it  is  called  Kiakra,  or  Tschakra,  "  and  is  said 
to  be  the  oldest  ensign  of  majesty  in  India."  ' 
When  held  by  Vishnu,  the  world-sustaining 
principle,  it  signifies  his  power  to  penetrate 
heaven  and  earth  and  bring  to  naught  the 
powers  of  evil.  It  symbolizes  his  eternal  and 
ever-vigilant  government  of  the  world.  Hence, 
probably,  its  use  as  a  sceptre  by  the  ancient 
kings  of  India. 

An    Indian    painting    represents     Brahma 

crowned  with  clouds,  witli  lilies  for  eyes,  with 

four  hands;  one  holding  the  necklace  of  crea- 

,  ^.    .  ,  tion,    anotiier  the   Veda,   a  third 

India  Acknow- 

ledging  the  Cross,  the  chalicc  of  lifc,  the  fourth  the 
fiery  cross.    Another  painting  represents  Krish- 
na in  the  centre  of  the  world  as  its  sustaining 
principle,  with  six  arms,  three  of  which   hold 
the  cross,  one  holds  a  sceptre  of  dominion,  an- 
other a  flute,  a  third  a  sword.    Another  gives  Jama,  the  judge  of  the  nether 
world,  with  spear,  sword,  scales,  torch,  and  cross.     Another  gives  Brawani, 
the  female  earth  principle,  holding  a  lily,  aflame,  a  sword,  and  a  cross."  " 
To  this  day,  in  Northern  India,  the  cross  is  used  to  mark  the  jars  of 
sacred  water  taken  from  the  Indus  and  Ganges,   as  in  the 

Cross  now  in  ^ 

North  India.        northeastcm  parts  of  Africa  the  women  impress  this  sign  as 
a  mark  of  possession  upon  their  vessels  of  grain,  etc. 

In  Southern   India  the  cross  is  used   as  an  emblem  of 

In  South  India. 

(.liscmboilied  Jaina  saints. 
The  worshippers  of  Hrahma  anil  I5uddha  outnumber'  those  of  Christ; 
and    the    symbol,    identified    as  that    of    our   Master,    was 

More  Followers 

of  Brahma  than    rcvcrcd  by  the    East    Indians — their    Lao    Tse,     centuries 

of  Christ. 

before  our  Lord  appeared  upon  earth. 

'  Ediii.  Kcv.,  vol.  cxxxi.,  p.  232. 

'  Mliller,  G/aulvn,  IVisstii,  tiinl  Kiiiist,  tier  Alh'n  //iiu/iis.  Tnb.  i,,  fit;.  2  ;  Tab.  i.,  fig. 
78  I  Tab.  ii.,  fig.  61  ;  Tab.  ii.,  fig.  140.  Quoted  in  (Imild's  Curious  Myths  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1 10, 

'  licrghaus,  in  liis  /'hysieal  Atlas,  places  tlic  Hiuldliists  and  lirahmiiis  at  44.6  per  cent,  of 
the  human  race,  while  Christians  are  30.7.  Max  Mliller,  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  vol. 
i.,  11.  214. 


Buddha,    with   Cross   on    breast 

and  hands. 

From      Lundy's      Monumental 

Christianitv. 


Before  the  Christian  Hra 


1 1 


Fylfot  Cross. 


Frequently  wc  meet  in  hulia  with  a  peculiar  form  of  the  cross,  ivhich 
in  its  universahty  and  interest  yields  only  to  the  Tau  of  Egypt.  More 
tlian  three  thousand  years  ago  was  the  strange  cruciform 
symbol,  known  as  the  Fylfot  cross,  rev'erenced  in  India.' 
It  is  a  sacred  symbol  in  the  tombs  of  Fg}'pt  and  in  the  catacombs  of 
Rome.  It  is  graven  on  the  temples  of  the  pre-historic  nations  of  both 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres.  The  heraldry  of  the  Middle 
Ages  blazoned  it  on  tlieir  shields.     To-day  it  is  used  as  a  mystic  symbol 


^1^ 


Different  forms  of  the  Fylfot  Cross. 
From  Lee's  Glossary  of  Liturgical  Tertns. 


among  the  secret  societies  who  ape  the  form,  but  have  lost  the  soul, 
which  animated  the  brotherhoods  of  those  ages,  now  known,  in  the  spirit 
of  sarcasm,  as  dark.  Modern  heralds  term  it  gniiniioiiioii,  and  crux 
gainuiata,  considering  it  as  composed  of  a  fourfold  repetition  of  the 
Greek  gannna.  Edmondson  defines  it  as  the  cross  potent  rebated,  or 
cross  contpo)iic.  The  Buddhists  call  it  the  Sawastika,  or,  in  the  Pali 
form,  Suti,  meaning,  "  It  is  well  "  or  "  So  be  it,"  and  it  is  the  symbol 
of  resignation.  The  Jainas  consider  it  the  emblem  of  the  seventh 
deified  teacher  of  the  present  era,  Supraswa,  or  Suparswaneth.  Its  use 
extended  from  the  earliest  day  to  the  present.  It  is  found  on  early 
Hindoo  coins  and  seals,  and  is  used  to-day  by  the  women  as  a  charm 
■against  evil. 

Among  the  most  ancient,  interesting,  and  valuable  relics,  from  our 
point  of  view,  are  two  rude  crosses  of  stone  recenth-  discovered  in  Cen- 
tral India,  just  within  the  Vindhyazone,  in  a  region  which 
must  at  some  remote  period  have  been  cultivated,  for  there 
are  remains  of  terraces  and  walls:  but  for  many  miles  the  country',  for 
centuries  and  centuries,  has  been  uninhabited  and  overgrown  with  dense 
forests.     The  population  was  driven  away  "  not  improbably  three  thou- 


Crosses  in  India. 


'  Mowe,  Hindoo  Pantheon,  pi.  ii.,  figs.  71,  72,  S4.     The   List  page  is  .npparently  the  ground 
plan  of  a  temple  in  the  shape  of  a  Fylfot. 


12        ^  History  of  the  Cross 

sand  years  before  the  advent  of  our  Saviour."  They  are  monoliths 
resembling  the  Cornish  crosses  (especiall}-  that  of  St.  Huryaiii,  the  one 
about  ten  feet  nine  inches  and  the  smaller,  eight  feet  six  inches  above 
ground,  and  are  similar  to  others  near  Rajunkolloor  in  the  Dcccan,  and 
are  probably  the  work  of  the  same  people.  "'  Here,  then,  amongst 
these  now  fragmentary  peoples,  from  the  debris  of  a  widely  spread  pri- 
me\al  race,  we  find  the  symbol  of  the  cross,  not  onlv  expressing  the  same 
mystery  as  in  all  other  parts  of  the  world,  but  its  erection,  doubtless, 
dating  from  one  of  the  very  earliest  migrations  of  our  species.  //  !s  im- 
possible to  adduce  any  clearer  or  stronger  proof  of  its  aiitiqiiitv  than  this. ' '  ' 
The  glory  of  the  East  is  her  temples,  and  the  plan  of  many  of  these 
exhibits  her  faith  in  the  saving  symbol.  Tavernier  describes  the  niag- 
-     .,  nificent  pagoda  of  Bindh  Madhu  at  Benares.     The  body  of 

Cruciform  r^    &  J 

Temples.  jj^g  edificc  was  an   immense  cross,  with  a  lofty  dome  in  the 

centre,  above  which  a  pyramitlal  structure  arose  to  a  great  height.  At 
each  extremity  of  the  cross  was  likewise  a  p\'ramid,  so  that  the  form  of 
the  cross  was  visible  at  a  vast  distance.  Tavernier  visited  this  in  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  not  many  years  before  it  was  destroyed 
by  Aurungzebe,  who  afterwards  built  a  mosque  on  its  site."  Temples 
of  a  similar  form  are  found  at  Mahratta,  on  the  Jumna,  and  elsewhere. 
E\cn  when  the  l:)uildings  are  rectangular,  their  pyramidal  towers  are 
placed  crosswise. 

At  the  temple  of  Chillambrum  on  the  Coromandel  coast,  there  are 
seven  lofty  walls,  one  within  another,  round  the  quadrangle,  and  as 
many  pyramidal  gateway's  in  the  middle  of  each  side,  which  form  the 
limbs  of  a  vast  cross,  consisting  of  twent_\--eight  pyramids,  extending 
more  than  a  mile  in  one  continuous  line.' 

The  cave  tem[)les  are  even  more  wonderful  than  the  superterraneous 

structures,  and  arc  perhaps  older."      .Among  the  most  celebrated  is  that 

called     Elephanta     by    the     I'luropeans.     (ihari]nni     by    the 

Cave  Temples. 

natives.      It  is  situateel   on   a  small   island   in   the  harbor  of 
Bombay.      The  cave  is  nearly  in  the   form   of  a   (Ireek  cross,  its  dimen- 

'  Ellin.  Rev.,  vol.  cxx.si  ,  ]i.  253. 

'  T.tvt-rnier,  Voyages,  toin.  iv.,  p.  149  ;    Maurice,  Indian  Anlii/.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  47. 

*  Ilaslam,  Cross  and  Serpent,  p.  100. 

*  The  nr,ihniiiis  say  they  arc  six  thousand  years  old.  'I'alboy's  Oxford  'tables  of  Chroni'logy 
]>laces  them  two  lliousand  B.C.  Fergusson  thinks  they  may  h.ave  been  constructed  since  the 
Christian  era.     .\\.  all  events  the  relii^ion  of  which  they  are  syniliols  antedates  Christianity. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  13 

sions  bcintr  lon!j;itiuIin;illy  one  luini.Irccl  aiul  tliirty-tlircc  feet,  transversely 
one  hundred  and  twenty-three,  heit^ht  about  seventeen  feet.  At  tlie 
extremity  is  tiu'  Hindni)  triad;  the  cni.v  ansata  is  conspicuously  placed 
in  one  arm,  and  the  walls  are  covered  with  gigantic  figures,  in  low  relief, 
allusive  to  Siva.  Bishop  Heber  considered  this  temple  specially  dedi- 
cated to  that  god  in  his  character  as  Supporter  or  Destroyer.'  .Similar 
cave  temples  are  foiuul  at  Salsette  and  Mllora. 

Java  received  her  civilization  and  art  directK'  from  India.  Her 
temples  may  date  since  the  Cliristian  era,  but  her  religion, — in  a  ]iart  of 
the  island, — ^Buddhism,   was    antecedent.      Of    the    Chandi 

. .        -,  ^  .  Cross  in  Java. 

Sewu,  or  thousand  tem[3les,  .Sir  .Stamford  Raffles  writes: 
"  In  the  whole  course  of  my  life  I  have  ne\'er  met  with  such  stupendous 
and  finished  specimens  of  human  labor  and  of  the  science  and  taste  of 
ages  long  since  forgot,  crowded  together  in  so  small  a  compass  as  in  this 
little  spot,  which,  to  Lise  a  militar\-  phrase,  I  deem  to  have  been  the 
head-quarters  of  Hinduism  in  Java."  (3f  course  the  sacred  symbol  is 
prominent.  The  Chandi  Sewu  is  a  vast  parallelogram  of  two  hundred 
and  ninety-si.K  small  temples  with  pyramidal  roofs  composed  of  five  or 
si.K  steps,  of  which  the  lower  three  are  in  the  figure  of  a  cross.'  The 
ground  plan  of  the  larger  temples,  as  the  Chandi  Loro,  Jongrang,  and 
the  Chandi  K;Ui  Bening,  are  cruciform.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  temples 
are  found  small  siKx-r  coins  bearing  the  impression  of  a  cross  and  of 
some  unintelligible  characters. 

We  follow  Buddhism  and  its  kindred  religion  into  China.  Here  the 
Lao-tseu,  as  the  cross  is  called,  is  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  most 
ancient  devices,  known  long  anterior  to  the  Sakya-Buddha 

Cross  in  China. 

era,    long    before    the    expiatory   Cross    was   erected   upon 

Calvary.      It  is  portrayed  upon  the  walls  of  their  pagodas,  it  is  painted 

upon  the  lanterns  used  to  illuminate  the  most   sacred  recesses   of  their 

temples.      It  s_\-mboIizes  hea\-en.     Also,  as  in  Africa   and  in  other  parts 

of  Asia,  the  pottery  of  China  often  bears  the  Fylfot,  probably  with  the 

same   secondary  meaning   employed   by  the   people,  the   sacred   right  of 

possession.^ 

'  Dudley,  Xaology,  p.  333  ;  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  iv.,  no.  31. 

'  Raffles,  Hist,  of  Java,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  15-18,  65. 

^  It  has  been  said  that  an  iron  cross  bearing  a  date  corresponding  to  A.D.  239,  was  found  in 
the  province  of  Kiang-see.  Kesson,  Cross  and  /)ra<^oii,  \>.  10.  If  so,  it  may  have  been  a 
Christian  relic,  presuming  the  tradition  to  be  true  that  S.  Thom.is  preached  the  gospel  in  China; 


14  History  of  the  Cross 

From  China  we  pass  to  Japan,  and  find  the  Fylfot  cross  the  distinct- 
I  We  badge  of   the   ancient  sect   of   Xaca   Japonicus.  or  first 

reforming  Buddaka.  The  di\'inity,  now  worshipped  as 
supreme,  wears  the  Fylfot  on  his  breast.' 

This  curious  symbol  (the  Fylfot)  seems  a  bond  among  nations  of  a 
certain  zone.  In  Thibet  it  has  pre-eminence  among  the  royal  regalia,  on 
n       ■   -ruK  .    the    crowns    and    sceptres    of    the    Bonpa    deities,    whose 

Cross  in  Thibet  ^  ^ 

andTartary.  thcology  claims  to  be  the  most  ancient  of  all  others.  The 
gaDiuiodion  is  graven  on  the  Artec,  or  musical  bell,  borne  by  Balgovind. 
the  herald  of  peace. 

Among  the  Tartars,  the  name  of  both  priest  and  deity.  Lama,  signi- 
fies a  cross,  and  the  symbol  is  used  in  their  worship." 

Even    in   the   extreme   bounds   of    Asia,    in    Kamchatka,    Humboldt 

but  there  is  a  geniiine  relic,  which,  although  of  late  date,  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  notice 
here.  In  1625,  in  digging  a  foundation  in  the  city  of  See-gan-foo,  capital  of  the  province  of 
Shen-se,  a  monument  was  discovered  on  which  was  sculptured  a  cro'^s  resembling  that  upon  the 
traditionary  tomb  of  S.  Thomas  at  Maliapore.  The  termination  of  the  arms  resembling  the 
cross  bottoiie,  its  base  is  surrounded  with  clouds.  The  inscription  gives  the  date  of  its  erection, 
recording  the  name  of  the  bishop,  emperor,  etc.  "  In  the  margin  is  written  in  Syriac:  '  In  the 
days  of  the  Father  of  Fathers,  Mar  Ananjesus,  the  Patriarch.'  Below  are  these  words,  also  in 
Syriac ;  '  In  the  Greek  year  iog2,  Mar  Jezedbuzd,  a  Presbyter  and  Chorepiscopus  of  the  royal 
city  of  Chumdan,  the  son  of  Millesius  of  happy  memory,  a  Presbyter  of  Baikh  in  Tochuristan, 
erected  this  tablet  of  stone,  in  which  are  described  the  precepts  of  our  Saviour,  and  the  preaching 
of  our  fathers  to  the  Emperor  of  the  Chinese.'  These  notices  fix  the  date  of  the  monument  to 
A.D.  781.  The  Patriarch  Ananjesus  died  about  77S,  but  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  intelli- 
gence of  his  death  had  not  yet  reached  the  far-distant  regions  of  China."  Layard,  A'iiicvcli, 
vol.  i.,  p.  206,  Am.  ed.  The  inscription  further  contains  a  profession  of  Christian  faith,  an 
exposition  of  Church  ceremonies  and  observances,  according  to  the  Nestorians,  and  a  general 
description  of  the  introduction  and  progress  of  Christianity  in  the  empire.  Then  follows  a  list 
of  missionaries  since  a.d.  636.  The  names  are  in  Syrian,  Persian  (or  Pehlevi.)  and  Chinese. 
Voltaire  and  others  have  sneered  at  the  genuineness  of  this  interesting  monument,  but  Milman 
in  his  note  to  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall,  chap,  xlvii.,  cites  the  evidence  of  its  authenticity.  A 
full  translation  of  the  inscription  is  given  in  Kesson's  Cross  ami  Dragon,  chap.  ii.  ;  see  also 
Layard  as  above. 

'  lidin.  Rev.,  vol.  cxxxi..  p.  23S. 

"^  Cardinal  Wiseman,  Science  and  Revealed  Religion,  vol.  ii.,  ji.  256  ;  Voyage  de  la  Chine, 
par  .Xvril,  p.  194.  The  cross  was  S.  Andrew's  or  the  Saltire.  Iliggins  says  it  represents  per- 
fection, indicated  by  the  fingers  of  both  hands.  The  Mexicans  used  the  same  character  in  their 
secular  calendars.  The  Tartars  derive  the  word  Lama  from  the  Scythian  lamh,  a  hand.  The 
Irish  hiam  means  a  head  of  a  church,  an  obbol,  etc.  Higgins,  Celtic  Druids,  p.  312;  Brad- 
ford, Am.  Antiq.,  392.  The  double  pyramid,  or  hand,  of  the  Egyptians,  signifying  fire  and 
water,  formed  of  two  triangles  V  was  the  famous  Hexalpha,  X^  or  Solomon's  seal,  or  Wizard's 
Foot.  According  to  Eastern  allegory,  it  was  placed  (as  that  of  S.  Michael)  upon  the  rebellious 
spirits  in  their  abyss  or  prison.  Hargrave  Jennings,  The  Rosicriicians,  \!.  160.  The  original 
meaning  of  dt'cussh  was  the  number  ten,  the  Roman  numerical  sign  for  which,  .\,  is  made  of 
two  Vs  joined.     See  Sir  Thomas  Browne's  Garden  of  Cyrus. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  15 

found  the  cross  and  rude  remains  of  hieroglyphics,  similar  to  those  of 
Etrvpt,  but,  unfortunatelv,  to  the   deLTenerated    nati\'es,  the 

0-'  1     »  '  .   '  r>  Cross  in 

mystic  signs,  though  revered  because  handed  down  from  Kamchatka, 
their  forefathers,  were  as  dead  letters,"  all  tradition  even  of  their  origin 
having  been  lost. 

Returning  southward,  Persia  is  still  more  satisfactory.  The  cross  is 
noted   among  the  sacred    s\nibols,   and   appears    consjjicu- 

,  .  ,  1-11  ■  -11  •  ,        Cross  in  Persia. 

ously  upon  an  ancient  tomb  to  winch  homage  is  still  paid. 

as  that  of  the  prophet   Daniel.      It  is  at  Susa,  known  in  the  da\'s  of  the 

captivity  as  Shushan.      Sir   Robert   Ker  Porter  describes  it 

Tomb  of  Daniel, 

as  of  green  granite,  one  side  covered  with  hieroglyphic 
figures  in  low  relief.  The  first  now  contains  the  sun,  moon,  and  a  star; 
the  second,  animals,  hare,  dog,  etc,  ;  the  third,  a  figure  with  the  head 
and  lower  extremities  of  a  tiger,  the  arms  of  a  man,  and  the  tail  of  a 
goat.  Three  symbolic  figures  separate  this  monster  from  another,  also 
half-man,  half-bnite,  hnlding  a  staff;  the  fourth  now  presents  an  ante- 
lope, a  serpent,  and  a  scorpion;  the  fifth,  a  trident,  two  birds,  and  a 
cross  with  four  equal  arms." 

The  gems  and  "  stones  wrought  by  man's  device,"  also  bear  in\-alu- 
able  testimony.  Dr.  King  records  an  intaglio,  the  bust  of  a  Persian, 
upon  a  sard.     "  In  the  field  of  the  design  was  engraved   a  _       .    .   ,. 

1  t>  t>  Cross  in  Antique 

ram's  head,  a  double  cross,  precisely  as  on  the  coins  of  Sala-  Gems, 

mis  in  Cyprus,  thus  indubitably  marking  the  portrait  as  that  of  a  Persian 
satrap  of  that  island,  at  some  period  before  the  age  of  Alexander  (died 
B.C.  323),  after  whose  time  the  Persian  dominion  over  the  Greek  islands 
had  entirely  ceased.' 

The  treasures  of  art  and  religion  in  Assyria  have  lately  been  opened 
to  us.  The  cross  is  everywhere  dominant.  In  the  early  Christian  cen- 
turies, Europe  adopted  the  custom  of  prefixing  the  sign  of 

Cross  in  Assyria. 

the  cross  to  signatures  and  inscriptions  of  a  specially  sacred 

nature;  but  the  reverential  practice  had  been  anticipated  thousands  of 

'  Haslam,  Cross  and  Serpent,  p.  loi, 

'  Porter,  Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia,  and  Armenia,  vol,  ii.,  p,  413.  This  traveller  gives  the 
same  interpretatimi  as  later  archaeologists.  "The  cross  indeed  (in  wonderful  coincidence)  is 
generally  understood  to  be  symbolical  of  the  divinity,  or  eternal  life."  Vol,  ii.,  p.  415.  Prideaux 
refers  to  the  tradition  of  Daniel's  death  and  monument  at  Susa  "  even  to  this  day."  Connections, 
pt.  i,,  b,  iii.  The  Persians  adored  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  the  elements.  Hence  the  cross> 
Herodotus,  quoted  by  Layard,  vol.  ii.,  p,  335.     See  also  Layard,  Croix  Anse'e,  pp,  25-32. 

^  C,  W,  King,  Antique  Gems,  p.  146, 


i6 


History  of  the  Cross 


years  before,  for  Layard  tells  us  that  when  the  cruciform  characters  are 
Cross  before  the    placed  crosswisc  before  a  word,  '"  there  is  every  reason   to 

Name  of  a 

Divinity.  bclievc  that   they  precede  tlie   name  of  a  divinity."' 

The  sculptures  of  Khorsabad  and  the  i\ories  from  Nimroud  exhibit 
nearly  every  variety  of  the  cross.  The  cross  pattcc  is  supposed 
primarily  to  have  t\'i)ified  the  elysiuin  of  the  four  great  gods  of  the 
Assyrians, — Ra  and  the  first  triad,  Ann,  Belus,  and  Hea;  when  in- 
serted in  a  roundlet,  it  is  emblematic  of  .Sansi,  or  the  sun,  dominat- 
ing the  earth  as  well  as  the  heavens." 
It  certainly  appears  to  have  been  used 
as  the  symbol  of  go\'ernment,  or  roy- 
alty, and  part  of  the  paraphernalia  in 
regal  religious  ceremonies,  for  it  is 
figured  on  the  breast,  or  [ilaced  in  the 
hands  of  the  monarchs  on  the  Assyrian 
marbles  now  in  the  British  MLiseum. 
A  large  cross  pattcc  thus  ornaments 
the  breast  of  Tiglath  Pileser  in  a  tab- 
let from  Nimroud.  Another  king  from 
Nineveh  bears  a  Maltese  cross,  and  an- 
other, from  the  hall  of  Nisroch,  wears 
an  emblematical  necklace  consisting 
of  the  SLin  surrounded  by  a  circle,  the 
moon,  a  Maltese  cross  within  a  circle, 
a  three-horned  cap,  and  a  s}-mbol  like 
two  horns. 

The   Assyrian    Venus,    Her;i,    also 
bears  in  her  hand  the  crux  aiisitta." 

The  frequenc}-  of  the  cross  gra\'en 
upon    the   cyliiuK'rs,    or  seals,    should 
be    noticed.      Miiny   of   these   are    foniul    among    the    ruins    in   Assyria, 
veiifying    the   assertion   of    Herodotus   that  every  man  car- 

Cross  on  Sitjnet. 

ried    a  siLTnet   of  his   own.      These  c\'linders   are    froni   one 


Hera,  or  tlie  Assyrian  Venus. 
I'roni  I  .ayard's  \itii'vc/t. 


'  Layard,  Nineveh,  vol.  ii.,  p.  153.     See  infra,  part  iii.,  clia]!.  ix.,  sec.  S. 

'^  Kdinl).  Rev.,  vol.  cxxxi.,  p.  237.  'Phis  writer  thinks  "that  the  multiplication  of  small 
dots,  minor  orbs,  and  oiht-r  adjuncts  about  the  end  of  the  arms,  and  in  the  angles  of  intersection, 
are  undoubtedly  emblematic  of  celestial  as  well  as  terrestrial  sovereignty,  denoting  the  number 
of  superior  deities,  and  their  peculiar  attributes."  "  Layard,  .\iii<-'f/i,  vol.  ii.,  p.  346. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  17 

to  two  inches  in  k-n^'tli,  and  about  lialf  these  (Hmensions  in  tliick- 
ness,  pcrforateti  lenL;lh\vise,  and  worn  like  a  bracelet  on  the  wrist. 
When  signets  arc  mentioned  in  the  early  IKirt  of  the  (Jld  Testament, 
they  are  spoken  of  as  worn  on  the  hand,  rarely,  if  ever,  upon  the  finger. 
Hence  most  of  them  must  have  been  of  this  type,  allliough  rings  of  very 
ancient  date  have  been  found.'  Pharaoh  took  oiT  his  signet  ring  from 
liis  hand  to  bestow  it  upon  Joseph  (Gen.  .xli.,  42).  The  Amalekite 
brouglit  unto  David  the  crown  and  bracelet,  /.  c\,  the  signet  of  Saul  (2 
Sam.  i.,  10).  The  Lord  declared  of  Coniah,  "  Though  he  wore  the 
signet  upon  my  right  hand,"  etc.  (Jer.  x.xii.,  24)  ;  and  of  Zorobabel, 
"  Even  he  was  as  a  signet  on  the  right  hand  "  (Ecclesiasticus  xlix.,  iij. 
The  impression  of  the  seal  was  taken  by  rolling  it  over  a.  lump  of  tem- 
pered clay.  Hence  the  comparison  used  by  the  Almighty  to  Job,  the 
heavens  are  "  turned  as  clay  to  the  seal  "  (Job  xxxviii.,  14). 

Layard  divides  the  cyhnders  into  four  classes:  the  early  and  lower 
Assyrian,  the  purely  Babylonian,  and  the  Persian.  The  first  class  ends 
with  Shalmaneser  in  the  eighth  century  B.C.^     Among  e.x- 

r       1   •  1  •  IT'-  r       1        1  Division  of  Seals. 

amples  of  this  class,  given  by  King,  we  find  the  cn/.i 
ansata.  Among  the  ne.xt  class  is  an  instance  of  a  woman  holding  a  Tau 
cross,  apparently  in  the  act  of  worship  to  the  moon,  Astarte,  pne  of  whose 
symbols,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  the  cross.  Upon  a  cylinder  in  the 
Paris  Cabinet  of  Antiquities,  published  by  Miinter,  are  four  figures,  the 
first  winged,  the  second  armed  with  thunderbolts.  Beside  the  latter  is  the 
crux  iDisata,  with  a  hawk  perched  on  the  oval  handle.  The  cross  here  is 
not  a  subordinate  figure,  but  half  the  height  of  the  deity.  The  other 
figures  are  those  of  a  woman  and  child.  In  the  same  collection  are  other 
cylinders  bearing  the  sacred  symbol.  Upon  one,  a  monarch,  or  deity,  is 
seated,  on  either  side  is  the  crux  ansata.  behind  the  throned  figure  a 
servant  holds  up  a  cross,  and  still  behind  liim  is  a  Maltese  cross.  Upon 
another  specimen  a  god  is  represented  extending  the  cross  to  a  priest, 
who  offers  him  a  gazelle.'  These  cylinders  were  disused  after  the  Mace- 
donian conquest.' 

'  The  signet  ring  of  Cheops  is  preserved  in  the  .Vbbott  Collection  of  Egyptian  Antiquities, 
in  the  Historical  Society.  New  York. 

'  A  cylinder  was  discovered  at  Konyunjik,  supposed  by  Layard  possibly  to  be  the  signet 
ring  of  Sennacherib,  eighth  century,  B.  c.  The  King  is  worshipping  before  the  sacred  oak. 
Above  is  the  emblematic  representation  of  the  divine  presence  in  the  form  of  a  winged  cross 
passing  through  a  circle  (the'  emblem  of  eternity),  surmounted  by  three  heads,  the  symbol  of  a 
triune  god.  Lysons,  Otn-  British  Ancestors,  p.  220.  See  also  King's  Antique  Gems,  pp.  I2g- 
132.  ^ Gould,  Curious  Mvths,  vol.  ii.,  p.  95.  ''King,  Antique  Gems,  p.  130. 


i8 


History  of  the  Cross 


Although  worn  among  the  ornaments,  even  by  the  women  in  their 

earrings,  yet,  probably,  the  cross  was  held  sacred  as  an  amulet,  for  the 

captives  were   not  deprived  of  it.      Usually  it   is  pendant 

Cross  as  an 

Amulet  or  froHia  ncck'lace,    or   attached  to  the  collar  of  the  dress,  as 

was  customary  among  the  Shari,  an  Assyrian  tribe,  and  also 
among  the  Rot-n-no,  supposed  to  be  Lydians,  and  likewise  among  the 
Rebo,  a  Northern  Asiatic  tribe  resembling  the  Parthians.  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson  adduces  these  instances  to  show  that  "  the  cross  was  already 
in  use  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century  before  Christ."  ' 

The  winged  globe  is  common  to   Egypt,  Persia,  and  other   Eastern 

nations.  But  the  Feroher,  as  it 
is  called,  is  most  fully  developed 
,.,.      ^  r-,  u       in  Assyria.      In  Nin- 

Winged  Globe, 

or  Feroher.  ^.^.g]^    ^^g     j^,^J    withiu 

the  circle  the  figure  of  a  deity 
armed  with  a  bow ;  the  wings  and 
figure  forming  a  Tau  cross.  As 
the  Psalmist  says,  "  He  hath  bent 
his  bow  and  made  it  ready  "  (Ps. 
vii.,  12).  If  the  scene  be  that  of  a 
battle,  the  deitj-  who  hovers  above 
in  his  cruciform  nimbus  holds  the 
bow  drawn;  if  a  triumph  is  repre- 
sented, the  bo\\-  is  unbent;  if  he 
presides  over  an  act  of  worship, 
the  right  hand  is  raised  in  benedic- 
tion. This  symbol  is  never  repre- 
sented except  over  a  king,  as  his 
protecting  spirit  or  guardian,  or 
else  as  receiving  his  royal  homage 

Assyri.in  Winged  Globe. 

From  Layard's  A'/wi'w/S.  and  worship.'     Some  have  inter- 

preted the  Feroher  as  a  symbol  of  a  triune  god,  antl  translate  the  circle  as 
Tracesof  a  Belief  symbolizing  eternity  ;  the  wings,  omnipresence,  and  the 
in  a  Trinity.         i^uman  figurc,  wisdom  or  intelligence.' 

'  Wilkinson,  Ancient  Egyptians,  vol.  i.,  p.  376. 

''  Layard,  Nineveh,  vol.  ii.,  p.  339.  M.  Layard  conjectures  that  the  circle  denotes  eternity, 
surrounding  the  image  of  Baal  with  the  wings  and  tail  of  a  dove  to  show  the  association  of 
Mylitta  or  the  Assyrian  Venus,  and  the  whole  is  a  symbol  of  the  triad.  Observations  sur  la 
Croix  Anst'c.  ^  Rawlinson,  Five  Great  Monarchies,  vol.  ii.,  230. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  19 

From  the  mines  of  Wadi  Makhara,  or  "  Valley  of  the  caves,"  near 
Feiran  in  Arabia,  tiie  nations  bordering  on  the  Red  Sea  procured  their 
copper.     The  caves  show  the  extent  of  their  excavations, 

Cross  in  Arabia. 

and  the  many  inscriptions  on  the  rocks  give  evidence  of  the 
long  ages  during  which  the  work  was  carried  on.  Among  these  inscrip- 
tions are  the  cartouches  of  Cheops,  of  the  fifth  Egyptian  dynasty,  the 
builder  of  the  Great  Pyramid  at  Gizeh  ;  and  Rameses  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty,  the  great-grandson  of  the  I'haraoli  who  pursued  the  Israelites 
in  their  passage  through  the  Red  Sea.  According  to  Wilkinson,  between 
these  reigns  1500  years  elapsed.  Prominently  among  these  ancient 
writings  in  the  rock  appear  the  Tau  cross,  and  that  surmounting  an  orb.' 
Mesopotamia  was  connected  with  Arabia  in  patriarchal  ages.  Relics 
of  ancient  date  are  few.  In  post-Christian  times,  although  still  in  anti- 
Christian  countries,  we  find  a  cross  carved  on   earlv  Cufic  _ 

'  Cross  in 

gems,  the  legends  being  arranged  so  as  to  form  a  Tau,  or  a  Mesopotamia, 
cross.  The  Cufic  characters  were  disused  after  the  thirteenth  century, 
so  we  have  a  clue  to  the  antiquity  of  the  signets.^ 

We  approach  the  Holy  Land  with  reverence,  for  we  remember  by 
whom  every  tittle  of  the  ceremonial  law  was  ordained  as  typical  of 
higher  things.      Universal  tradition  asserts  that   the  blood 

Cross  in  Pales- 

of  the  Paschal  lamb  was  sprinkled  upon  the  lintels  and  door-      tine,   "  under 

the  Law." 

posts,  on  the  eve  of  the  Passover  in  Egypt,  in  the  form  of 

a  cross. °     According  to  the  Talmud,  Jarchi,  and  Maimonides,  when  the 

officiating   priest  sprinkled  the  blood  of  a  victim  in  sacrifice  upon  the 

'  Various  theories  concerning  these  inscriptions  have  been  put  forth.  Some  consider  them 
the  work  of  the  Chaldeans,  others  that  of  the  Israelites  during  their  sojourn  in  the  wilderness, 
others  that  of  the  early  Christians,  and  still  others  that  of  a  tribe  of  ancient  Arabians  before  the 
Arabic  language  was  known  in  the  desert.  Robinson,  Bihlical  Researches,  vol.  i.,  pp.  g2,  95, 
113,  etc. 

'  King,  Antique  Gems,  p.  153.  The  Cufic,  or  square  Arabic  char.icter,  was  one  of  the 
modifications  of  the  Pehlevi.  It  took  the  name  from  the  fact  of  its  having  been  adopted  by  the 
transcribers  of  the  Koran  at  Cufa  in  Mesopotamia.     Ilnd.,  p.  477. 

^  It  is  done  so  to  this  day  in  some  countries.  In  Patras  and  Corfu,  "  we  observed  the 
doors  of  the  Jews  marked  on  the  door-posts  and  lintels  with  the  blood  of  the  Paschal  Lamb  ;  and 
the  mark  was  alway  made  in  the  shape  of  the  Cross,"  .  .  .  and  so  "  seems  a  witness  against 
themselves.  It  is  Christ's  death  lying  at  their  doors.  It  is  a  mute  echo  of  the  awful,  prophetic, 
self-invoked  curse,  '  His  blood  be  on  us  and  on  our  children.'  "  F.  W.  Faber,  Sights  and 
Thoughts  in  Foreign  Churches,  etc.,  p.  3gg.  At  Corfu  the  cross  was  inscribed  with  a  lock  of 
the  lamb's  wool  dipped  in  its  blood.  Tuckerman,  The  Greeks  of  To-day,  p.  3og.  In  India, 
blood  is  still  painted  on  the  door-posts  by  the  natives  as  a  charm  against  cholera,  jfournal  of 
Sacred  Lit.,  1863,  p.  504.  During  the  plague  in  London,  it  will  be  remembered,  the  red  cross 
was  so  used. 


20  History  of  the  Cross 

consecrated  bread  and  hallowed  utensils,  it  was  in  the  form  of  a  cross, 
and  the  same  sign  was  traced  in  consecrated  oil  upon  the  heads  of  the 
priests  when  annointed.'  Even  whenever  occasion  required  the  moving 
of  the  \ictims,  or  the  wa\'ing  of  the  branches  of  palm,  the  motion  was 
made  to  indicate  the  figure  of  a  cross/ 

Especially  should  this  be  noted  in  the  solemn  heave  and  wave  offer- 
ings,   called  by  the  Jews,    Tcmtplia.      Dr.  Adam   Clarke   says,  "  As  the 
wave  offering  was  agitated  to  and  fro,  and  the  heave  offer- 

Cross  Figured  in 

Heave  and  Wave  ing  up  and  dowu,  somc  have  concei\x-d  that   this  twofold 

Offerings.  ,  _  ^       , 

action  represented  the  figure  of  the  cross,  on  which  the 
great  peace  offering  between  God  and  man  was  offered  in  the  personal 
sacrifice  of  our  blessed  Redeemer.  Had  we  authority  for  this  conjecture, 
it  would  certainly  cast  much  light  on  the  meaning  and  intention  of  these 
offerings,  and  when  the  intelligent  reader  is  informed  that  one  of  the 
most  judicious  critics  in  the  whole  republic  of  letters  is  the  author  of  this 
conjecture,  viz.,  Houbigant,  he  will  treat  it  with  respect.  I  shall  give 
his  own  words  on  this  verse.  '  The  heave  and  wave  offerings,  as  two 
cei'emonies  in  the  same  oblation,  are  here  distinguished.  The  wa\'e 
offering  implies  that  the  victim  was  moved  hither  and  thither,  to  the 
right  hand  and  to  the  left;  the  heave  offering  was  lifted  up  and  down, 
and  this  was  done  several  tiines.  In  this  way  the  Jews  explain  these 
things,  and  teach  the  Christians  that  by  these  acts  the  cross  was  adum- 
brated, upon  which  that  Peace  offering  of  the  human  race  was  lifted  up 
which  was  prefigured  by  all  the  ancient  victims.'  "  '  Most  significant, 
also,  it  is  that  the  heave  offering  was  a  peace  offering  (Lev.  vii.,  32),  and 
the  wave  offering  was  part  of  the  "  consecration  of  sweet  savour  "  (Lev. 
viii.,  28,  29)  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  as  High  Priest  and  priests.  Yet 
these  ceremonial  anil  prefigLii'ative  sacrifices  were  instituted  1528  years 
before  the  Lamb  of  God,  both  priest  and  sacrifice,  was  offered,  the  Peace 
Offering  and  Redeemer,  upon  Calvary. 

Between  Phoenicia  and  Judea  there  was  frequent  intercourse,  but  we 
have  sad  evidence  that  the  pagan  country  had  the  weightier  influence  in 
religion.      Therefore  we  cannot   suppose  tliat    Tyie  and   Sidon   derived 

'  It  is  thus  prescribed  in  the  "  Office  of  the  dironatiim  of  the  Sovereigns  of  Great  Britain." 
Sir  Thomas  Browne  thinks  the  oil  was  poured  in  a  circle  on  the  heads  of  Jcwi!:h  kings,  hut 
decussatively  on  the  heads  of  jiriests. —  Il'ori-s.  vol.  iii.,  p.  :V)ii. 

*  Maimon,  De  Vafcd  Rufii,  p.  495, — quoted  in  Faber's  llora  Mosaica,  vol.  ii.,  p.  1S8. 

^Clarke,  Commentary.  Kx.  xxix.,  27. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  21 

tlicir  ndoratidii  for  tlic  cross  from  Israel.  Yet  tlu-y  lickl  it  as  a  sacred 
symbol.  Astarte,  the  moon,  the  yoddess  of  the  waters,  was  a  fit  tutelary 
divinity  for  a  commercial   nation,  and  she  is  represented  on 

Cross  in 

the   coins   of  Byblus   and   other  cities  as   standing"-  on    the     Phcenicia,  Asia 

Minor,  etc. 

prow  of  a  vessel  holding  a   long  cross.      Solomon,    in   the 
apostasy  of  his  old  age,  worshipped  at  her  shrine  a  thousanil  years  before 
Christ.      In  sin  and  ignorance  the  wisest  man  knelt  before  an  idol.      But 
that  image  bore  in  its  hand  the  .symbol  of  light  and  truth  to  future  ages. 

Phcenicia  extended  her  colonies  throughout  the  Mediterranean.  So 
we  find  in  Gozzo,  an  island  near  Malta,  a  cruciform  temple  of  Astarte. 
At  Citium,  in  Cyprus,  colonized  by  the  Phienicians  more  than  eight 
hundred  years  li.C,  a  medal  has  been  found  bearing  on  one  face 
a  lamb,  on  the  other  a  circle  of  beads  resembling  a  rosary,  and  a 
cross.  The  crux  aiisata  is  stamped  upon  the  coins  of  this  island,  and 
also  on  those  of  Cilicia  in  Asia  Minor,  with  I'hienician  legends. 
Upon  one  coin  the  cross  fills  the  whole  face;  upon  another  it  is  ])laced 
below  the  throne  of  Baal  of  Tarsus;  others  bear  the  sacred  bull  accom- 
panied with  the  cross,  or  a  lion's  or  ram's  head  on  the  obverse  and 
the  cross  and  circle  on  the  reverse.  A  superb  medal  of  Cilicia  with  a 
Phoenician  inscription,  struck  under  the  Persian  subjugation,  three  to 
five  hundred  years  B.C.,  has  u])on  one  face  Astarte  with  the  crux  aiisata 
by  her  side.  The  last  example  we  shall  cite  of  Phoenician  work  is  an 
exquisite  intaglio  of  chalcedony,  given  in  the  Maiioi7-cs  dc  l' Acadaiiic 
royale  dcs  Inscriptions  ct  Belles  Lett  res?  Between  two  stars  a  figure  of  a 
deity  stands,  above  his  head  is  the  triangle,  or  symbol  of  the  trinity, 
beneath  are  cruces  ajisattB.'^ 

Before  leaving  Asia  we  pause  to  notice  the  cross 
upon  the  tomb  of  Midas,  king  of  Phrygia,  li.C.  71S, 
and  the   Fylfot   cross  upon   the   coins  of   „       •    du 

^  i  Cross  in  Phrygia 

Chalcedon.  A  gold-headed  staff  or  seep-  and  chaicedon. 
tre  knob,  ornamented  with  an  engraved  cross,  has 
been  lately  found  on  the  site  of  Homer's  Troy,  among 
other  discoveries  of  curious  jewels  in  gold,  silver,  cop-    Sceptre  Knob,  found 

,  at  Trov.     From 

per,  and  bronze.  i-  ,  ,•      '    ,    ^    . 

^      '  bctiliemann  s   7 raja. 

'  See  vol.  xvi. 

'Clarke,  Travels,  vol.  iv.,  p.  77;  McCulloch,  Researches,  p.  332;  Humboldt,  Xotiveau 
Continent,  torn,  ii.,  p.  355  ;  Could,  Curious  Myths,  vol.  ii.,  p.  g6. 

"  Henry  Schliemann,   Troja,  p.  107. 


2  2  History  of  the  Cross 

Section  3.     In  Europe. — Leaving  the  land  of  Shem  and  passing  to 

the  tents  of  Japhet,  we  are  welcomed  at  the  very  cradle  of  European  art 

and  civilization  by  the  cross.      It  may  have  been  brought 

Cross  in  Greece. 

with  other  traditions  by  those  who  wandered  into  Greece 
after  the  dispersion  of  Babel,  or  it  may  have  been  transmitted  from 
Egypt,  or  IMuenicia,  but  the  same  promise  of  "  future  life  "  was  sym- 
bolized.' It  was  used  also  as  a  sign  of  mercy  in  extending  temporal 
existence,  for  when  a  criminal  was  condemned  to  death,  his  name  was 
marked  on  the  judicicd  tablets  with  a  T/icta,  the  initial  of  ddvaros, 
death;  but  when  acquitted,  with  a  T,  the  Tau  cross,  as  a  sign  of  life. 
The  Romans  borrowed  these  symbols  for  the  same  purpose.^  It  has 
been  conjectured  that  this  use  of  the  cross  was  derived  from  that  marked 
with  the  blood  of  the  Paschal  lamb  on  the  door-posts  of  the  children  of 
Israel  on  the  night  of  the  Passover  in  Egypt. ^ 

It  is  plain  that  a  sacred  symbolic  meaning  was  connected  with  the 

cross  in  Greece.      Four  hundred  \-ears  before  Christ,  Plato,  in  his  Epistle 

to  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  intimated  his  belief  in  a  trinity,  and  elsewhere 

expressed  an  opinion  that  the  form  [symbol  ?]  of  the  second  person 

was  stamped  upon  the  universe  in  the  form  of  a  cross."  ' 

An  inscription  in  Thessaly,  EPM.-I.d  XQfJNIOP,  is  accompanied  by  a 

Calvary  cross.'    Numerous  examples  of  the  Fylfot  cross  are  found  on  Greek 

pottery,  circa  B.C.  600,  and  on  the  coins  of  Corinth  and  also 

Cross  in  Greece.  r   /~' 

those  of  Gnossos,  or  Cnassos,  a  city  of  Crete,  B.C.  500-450. 
Northern   Italy  was  inhabited  by  a  people  so  many  ages  ago  that 
history  has  forgotten  them.      Research   has  discovered   that  tliey  dwelt 
in   villages   built   on   platforms  over  lakes,    that    they   were 

Cross  in  Italy. 

ignorant  of  the  arts  of  civilization,  but  they  knew  enough 
to  believe  in  the  cross  as  a  religious  s_\-mbol,  "  and  that  they  trusted  in 
the  cross  to  guard,  and  it  may  be  to  revive,  the  loved  ones  whom  they 
committed  to  the  dust."  ° 

'  Caylus,  Ri-cucil d'AiilUj. ;   Fosbroke,  Encyc.  Antiq.,  p.  159. 

"  Kaoul  Rochette,  Sui-  la  Croix  Ans/e,  note  7  ;    Persius  Sat.,  iv.  13. 

■'  It  "  is,  in  fact,  a  symljol  of  acquittal  :  God  having  acquitted  or  justified  them,  they  there- 
fore were  to  be  spared.  From  this  original  emblem  of  divine  protection,  the  Greeks  derived  the 
notion  of  marking  the  names  of  the  acquitted  with  a  T  wiiliout  knowing  its  real  signification." 
Deane,  Serpent  Worship,  p.  143;  Godwin,  Roman  Aniii;.,  p.  241. 

■"  .S.  Augustine  acknowledged  his  indebtedness  to  I'lato  in  enabling  liim  to  underst.tnd  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity. — Lysons,  Our  British  Ancestors,  p.  215. 

'  (lould.  Curious  Myths,  vol.  ii.,  p.  98. 

'  //«■</.,  p.  Qg. 


Before  the  Christian  lira 


23 


There  are  vast  remains  of  these  people,  consisting  of  cinders,  bones 
■  animals,  grain,  querns,  moulds  for  metals,  portions  of  their  houses, 
pottery,  mainly  in  fragments;  a  few  weapons,  some  articles  of  the  toilet, 
even  hair-pins  and  combs,  and  such  other  matters  as  would  accumulate 
around  habitations.  Owing  to  the  geological  changes,  the  shores  and 
beds  of  lakes  have  become  dry  ground,  and  the  deposits,  being  rich  in 
phosphates,  have  been  dug  into  by  the  farmers  for  fertilizing  purposes; 
hence  these  discoveries. 

The  remains  belong  to  three  distinct  ages.  In  the  first,  the  pottery 
is  rude,  not  made  upon  the  wheel,  nor  fire-baked;  both  of  these  evi- 
dences of  the  advances  of  civilization  are  found  in  the  re- j^j^^.^.^.^^,  ^  ^^  ^j 
mains  of  the  second  age;  also,  iron  is  met  with,  although  the  Terramares. 
the  metal  in  these  tcrraniarcs,  as  these  depositories  are  termed,  is  mainly 
bronze.  In  the  third  period,  rarely  distinguished,  the  beginnings  of 
ornamentation  are  discovered  in  the  rude  representations  of  animals  and 
human  beings  on  the  pottery.  Among  the  remains  of  this  last  age, 
some  shapeless  pieces  of  bronze  occur,  which  some  antiquarians  have 
supposed  to  be  the  first  trace  of  money.  Etruria  flourished  twelve 
centuries  before  the  Christian  era,'  yet  these  nations  must  have  lived  and 
disappeared  many  ages  before  Etruscan  art  and  civilization  were  born. 

At  Castione, 
near  the  station 
of  Borgo  San  Do- 
nino,  b  e  t  w  e  e  n 
Parma  and  Pia- 
cenza,  there  is 
a  mound  upon 
which  is  a  con- 
vent. Originally 
that  mound  was 
the  bed  of  a  lake 
which  was  filled 
with  relics  of  this 
ancient     people  ; 


E.irthen  vessels  found  at  Castiuiie. 
From  De  Mortillet's  Le  Signe  de  la  Croix. 


among  them  are  earthen  vessels,  and  upon  the  bottoms  of  some  were 
rudely  engraved  crosses,  as  represented  in  the  accompanjdng  engravings. 

'  M.  Des  Vergers  calculated  that  Etruscan  civilization  was  developed  B.C.  1330. 


24 


History  of  the  Cross 


At  \'illaiiova,  near  Bologna,  one  of  their  burial-places  has  been  dis- 
covered. ]\Iore  than  one  hundred  and  thirty  tombs  have  been  examined. 
„      ,    .      .       Thev     are     carefully    and    symmetrically    constructed    of 

cemeteries  at  -  ^  •  ^ 

viiianova.  bouldcrs,  over  which  the  earth  has  accumulated.     Within 

each  sepulchre  was  a  cinerary  urn  containing  calcined  human  remains. 


Cylinder  found  aL  \'iUanova.     From  De  Mortillet'b  Lc  S'n^ne  ,/<•  la  Croix. 


Heads  of  t'ylinders  fouml  at  \illannva.      From  De  Morlillet's  Lc  Sis^ite  i/,-  h  Croix. 

and  soinetimes  half-melted  ornaments.      The  urns  were  shaped  like  two 
inverted    cones   joined    together,    the    inoutli  being   closed    with   a   little 


Before  the  Christian  lira 


25 


saucer.  Near  the  remains  of  tlie  dead  were  fdiiiid  solid  double  cones 
with  rounded  ends  on  which  crosses  were  elaborately  engraved.  In  the 
vases  of  double  cones  around  their  partition  was  a  line  of  circles  contain- 
ing crosses. 

There  is  another  cemetery  at  Golasecca 
near  the  extremity  of  Lago  Maggiore.  A 
number  of  tombs  have  been 

At  Golasecca. 

opened ;  they  belong  to  the 

same  age   as  those  of  Villanova,  that   o( 

the  lacustrine  habitations. 

That  which  characterizes  the  sepul- 
chres of  Golasecca,  and  gives  them  their 
highest  interest,"  says  M.  de  Mortillet, 
who  investigated  them,  "  is  this, — first, 
the  entire  absence  of  all  organic  representation  ;  we  found  only  three, 
and  they  were  exceptional,  in  tombs  not  belonging  to  the  plateau; — 
secondly,   the  almost   in\'ariable  presence   of   the  cross  under  the  vases 


Accessory  Vase  found  at 

Golasecca. 

From  De  Mortillet's  Le 

Si^ne  dc  la  Croix. 


Bottom 
of  Vase, 


Luttoms  of  Ossuaries. 


Ossuary  fnuiul  at  (iolasecca. 
From  De  Mortillet's  Le  Signc  lic  la  Croix. 

in  the  tombs.  When  one  reverses  the  ossuaries,  the  saucer  lids,  or 
tlie  accessory  vases,  one  saw  almost  always,  if  in  good  preservation,  a 
cross  traced  thereon.     .     .     .     The  examination  of  the  tombs  of  Gola- 


26  History  of  the  Cross 

secca  proves  in  a  most  convincing,  positive,  and  precise  manner,  that  which 
the  tcrramarcs  of  Emilia  had  only  indicated,  but  which  had  been  confirmed 
by  the  cemetery  of  Villanova, — that  above  a  thousand  years  before  Christ, 
the  cross  was  already  a  religious  emblem  of  frequent  employment."  ' 

In    1817,  at   Montecucco  near  Rome,  vases  bearing  the   Fylfot  cross 

were  dug  up  from  underneath  the  volcanic  tufa,  of  such  an  age  that  they 

are  pronounced  to  have  been  manufactured  by  a  people  who 

At  Montecucco.  ,,.,-  ,_  .  .,  iiaiit 

inhabited  the  country  before  Ascanms  founded  Alba  Longa, 
that  is,  before  1 1 76  B.C." 

Among  the  ancient  Latins  the  Fylfot  cross  was  the  emblem  of  Liber- 
tina,  or  Persephone,  the  Queen  of  the  Shades,  the  arbiter 

Fylfot  used  by  '^ 

Latins,  and  of  mortal  fate ;  and  this,  or  the  practice  of  concealing  the 

Christian  symbols  of  their  belief  under  the  guise  of  pagan  emblems, 

may  have  led  the  early  Christian  Fossors,  or  tomb-diggers 
in  the  catacombs,  to  adopt  it  as  it  appears  on  their  garments. 

So  much  space  has  been  given  to  the  unwritten  page  of  the  history  of 
Italy,  that  only  a  brief  reference  can  be  made  to  other  examples. 

In  the  mausoleum  of  Lars  Porsenna,  circa  500  B.C.,  in  Etruria,  thrice 
was  the  cross  repeated.^  The  coins  of  Vibius  Pansa,  consul  of  Rome, 
„       .    „,     .     46  B.C.,  bear  on  the  reverse  Jupiter  crowned  with  oak.  or 

Cross  in  Etruria.   ^  '  J      l 

In  Rome.  olive,  holding  in  his  right  hand  a  patera,  in  his  left  a  long 

sceptre  terminating  in  a  cross.  The  staff  of  the  Roman  augurs  was  some- 
times surmounted  with  this  symbol,  and  the  vestal  \-irgins  suspended  the 
Fylfot  cross  from  their  necks,  doubtless  with  more  reverential  feeling 
than  many  women  at  the  present  day  bear  the  jewelled  emblem  of  salva- 
tion among  the  trinkets  which  adorn  their  bosoms. 

Gems  also  give  their  testimony.  Among  other  examples  may  be 
mentioned  a  chalcedony  exhibiting  Jupiter  holding  in  one  hand  an  image 
of  Victory,  in  the  other  a  double  cross.  The  thunderbolt  and  eagle  are 
on  either  side.  Upon  the  reverse  is  an  inscription  arranged  to  represent 
a  serpent  coiled.' 

'  De  MorliUct,  I.e  signe  de  la  Croix  avant  Ic  Christianisiiu\  Paris,  1S66,  chap,  iii.,  pp.  gS- 
127  ;   Gould,  Myths,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  103-105. 

"^  Ilobliouse,  Jlhislralions  of  the  IVth  Canto  of  Childe  IJarolJ,  stanza  clxxiv. 

^  According  to  Pliny,  who  borrowed  his  account  from  iM.  Terentius  Varro.  Edin.  Rev., 
vol.  cxxxi.,  p.  250. 

■*  On  account  of  the  symbols,  Walsh  considers  this  a  Gnostic  gem,  of  the  sect  th.it  followed 
Simon  Magus,  who  was  sometimes  represented  as  Jupiter.  Walsli,  Gems,  p.  62.  It  may  be  so. 
but  we  have  very  similar  coins  thai  were  ante-Christian. 


Before  the  Christian  Era 


27 


Many  of  tlie  coins  of  Syracuse  bear  tlic   impress  of  the   l<"vlfot.      A 
medal     of 

Cross  in  Sicily. 

Camarina 

bears  a  swan  and  an 
altar  ;  beneath  the  latter 
are  the  cross  and  ring. 

The  most  ancient 
coins  of  the  Gauls  were 
circular,  with  a  cross  in 
the  middle.  That  these 
were     not     representa- 


I'Tcini  Walsh 'b  Aiicii-iit  Coins,  A/ccin/s,  and  Gems. 


Cross  in  France. 


Ancient  Gaulisli  Coins. 
From  Gould's  Curious  Myths. 


tions  of  wheels,  as  has  been  supposed,  is  evident  from  there  being  but 
four  spokes,  placed  at  right  angles;  and  this  symbol  con- 
tinued when  coins  of  the  Greek  type  took  their  place.  The 
coins  of  the  Volcae  Tectosages,  \\\\o  inhabited  the  region  now  known 
as  Languedoc,  were  stamped  with  crosses,  the  angles  of  which  were  filled 

with  pellets.  The  Leuci,  who 
li\'ed  in  the  country  of  modern 
Toul,  used  similar  devices.  A 
coin  figured  in  the  Rci'iic  tics 
Niiiiiisiiiatiqiics,  1835,  bears  a 
circle  containing  a  cross,  whose 
angles  are  occupied  by  chevrons. 
Some  of  the  crosses  are  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  bezants,  or  pearls.  Near 
Paris,  at  Ciioisy-le-Roy,  was  found  a  Gaulish  coin,  the  obverse  bearing  a 
head,  the  reverse  a  serpent  coiled  around  the  circumference,  enclosing  two 
birds ;  between  them  is  a  cross  with  pellets  at  the  end  of  each  limb,  and 
pellets  occupying  the  angles.  Similar  coins  have  been  discovered  in 
Loiret  and  elsewhere.  About  two  hundred  coins  were  discovered,  in 
1835,  '^t  Cremiat-sur-Yen.  near  Ouimper.  in  an  earthen  urn  with  ashes, 
in  a  tomb,  showing  that  the  cross  was  used  in  Armorica,  in  the  age  of 
cremation. 

In  1850,  S.  Baring  Gould  exhumed  at  Pont  d'Oli,  near  Pau,  the  ruins 
of  an  extensive  palace,  paved  with  mosaic.  The  principal  ornamenta- 
tions were  crosses  of  different  varieties.  The  pavement  of  Ruins  at  pont 
the  principal   room  was  bordered   by  an  exquisite  running  '^'°''- 

pattern  of  vines  with  grapes  springing  from  drinking  vessels  in  the  centre 


28 


History  of  the  Cross 


of  the  sides.     Within  were  circles  composed  of  conventional  roses,  in  the 
middle  a  vast  cross,  measuring  nineteen   feet  eight   inches  by  thirteen 

feet.  The  ground  work  of  white  was  filled  with 
shell  and  other  fish,  and  in  the  centre  was  a 
bust  of  Neptune  with  his  trident.  The  labor- 
ers exclaimed, ' '  C  'est  Ic  bon  Diat,  c' est  Jdsus. 
It  may  have  been  of  post-Christian  times,  but, 
from  the  e.xamples  already  given,  Mr.  Gould 
believes  the  cross  to  have  been  a  sign  well 
known  to  the  ancient  Gauls,  and  that  this  was 
their  work.' 

Among  the  more  northern  nations  of  Europe 
Cross  in  North-     ■^^'^^  derived  their  mythology  from 
ern  Europe.         Scandiuavia,  the  Fylfot  cross  ap- 
pears as  a  symbol  of  worship  under  the  name 
Cross,  with  bust  of  Neptune,      of  Thor's  hammer. 

found  near  Paris.  j,^  ,^,5^  j,^  ^  fj^qj  ;„  Bornholm,  an  island  in 

From  Gould's  Curious  Myths. 

the  Baltic,  near  Sweden,  ornaments  and  coins 

of  gold  were  discovered  bearing  this  figure.      Some  of  the  coins  were 

impressed  with  a  horned  beast  bearing  a  human  head  as  a 

rider,  upon  whose  forehead  was  Thor's  hammer.      Four  of 

the  specimens  have  also  the  name  of  the  god  in  Runic  characters." 

Among  the  flint  weapons  found  in  Denmark  are  stone  cruciform  ham- 
mers, which  are  supposed  to  have  been  used  in  sacrificing  \ictims  to 
Tiior.  It  was  with  his  hammer,  Mjolner,  that  Thor  crushed 
the  head  of  the  Mitgard  serpent,  destro^-ed  the  giants,  re- 
stored to  life  the  dead  goats  which  drew  his  car,  and  consecrated  the 
pyre  of  Baidur.      This  hammer  was  a  cross.' 

In  tile  old  Scandinavian  recorils  we  reatl  that  wIilmi  (^din  was  near  his 
death,  he  caused  himself  to  be  marked  with  the  point  of  a  spear,  saying 
that  he  was  going  to  Godheim,  to  prepare  a  welcome  for  all  brave  war- 
riors who  should  be  dedicated  to  him,  anil  the  Swedes  believed  that  he 
had  gone  to  the  ancient  Ast-ard  to  li\-e  etern.ilK-.      lie  was  marked  with 


In  Denmark. 


'  (jc)uld,  Myths,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  76-86.  An  able  writer  in  tlie  F.ditihiiygh  Rc~>ii;v  thinks  that 
Gould  has  been  misled  by  the  tresul,  or  trident,  and  that  the  figure  is  tliat  of  I'roteus,  not 
Neplune.     Vol.  cx.\xi.,  p.  335. 

'  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Northern  Antiijiiaiians  for  iSj6. 

'  Gould,  Myths,  vol.  ii.,  p.  S6. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  29 

the  sign  of  the  head  of  a  spear,  that  is,  witli  the  sign  of  the  cross;  for, 
"  The  sign  of  Tiior's  hammer,  or  the  head  of  a  battle-axe,  or  liaiberd," 
says  Laing,  "  was  used  as  the  sign  of  the  cross  after  the  introthiction  of 
Christianity  as  a  kind  of  consecration  by  a  holy  symbol."  ' 

Of  King  Hacon,  we  are  told  that  he  was  a  Christian,  and  wished  his 
people  to  be  "  baptized,  and  belie\'c  in  one  God,  and  in  Christ,  the  son 
of  Mary,  and  to  refrain  from  all  sacrifices  to  heathen  gods.  They  re- 
fused, and  insisted  upon  the  King's  offering  sacrifice  at  the  harvest 
festival.  The  King  sat  on  his  throne.  Now  when  the  first  full  goblet 
was  filled.  Earl  Sigurd  spoke  some  words  over  it,  blessed  it  in  Odin's 
name,  and  drank  to  the  King  out  of  the  horn;  and  the  King  took  it  and 
made  the  sign  of  the  Cross  over  it.  Then  said  Kaare  of  Gryting,  '  What 
does  the  King  mean  by  doing  so  ?  Will  he  not  sacrifice  ?  '  Earl  Sigurd 
replied,  '  The  King  is  doing  what  all  ui  you  do  who  trust  to  your  power 
and  strength.  He  is  blessing  the  full  goblet  in  the  name  of  Thor,  by 
making  the  sign  of  his  hammer  over  it.'  On  this  there  was  quietness  for 
the  evening,  for  his  followers  called  tiiemselves  the  children  of  Thor,  and 
expected  to  be  saved  in  the  last  day  by  Thor's  hammer,"  ^  i.  i\,  the 
cross. 

Longfellow  refers  to  the  Scandinavian  symbol  and  the  cross  when 
describing  King  Olaf  keeping  Yule-tide  at  Drontheim: 

"  O'er  his  drinking  iKirn  the  sign 
He  made  of  the  Cross  divine. 

As  he  drank,  and  muttered  his  prayers  ; 
But  the  Berserks  evermore 
Made  the  sign  of  the  hammer  of  Thor 
Over  theirs," 

In  reality  both  were  the  same — 

"  And  in  foaming  cups  of  ale 
The  Berserks  drank  washael 
To  the  Lord." 

Even  to  this  day,  Thor's  hammer,  or  the  Fylfot  cross,  is  used  in  the 
magical  rites  still  practised  in  Iceland  by  the  witches,  who 

.  '  Cross  in  Iceland. 

claim  thereby  to  rule  the  elements. 

I  came  not  to  bring  peace,  but  a  sword,"  was  the  sad  prophecy  of 

'  Laing,  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  A^orivay,  vol.  i.,  p.  224. 
'  Ibid.,  p.  330. 


30  History  of  the  Cross 

the  Prince  of  Peace,  and  even  his  symbol  was  misused  to  fulfil  his  word. 

One   custom,   probably  derived  from  the    Scandinavians,   descended  to 

a  late  date  :  the  summons  among  the  north-western  nations 

The  Fiery  Cross.  ,  _. 

of  Europe  to  council  or  war  by  means  of  the  Fiery  cross, 
i.e.,  a   cross   the    ends   of    which    had  been  scorched.     Scott's  graphic 
description,  of  the  preparation  and  hurrying  on  of 

" — the  ffU  cross  of  blood  and  brand,"  " 

is  not  exaggerated.  In  the  island  of  Lewes,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  when 
the  Danes  became  oppressive,  a  fiery  cross  was  circulated  among  the 
Gaels  with  the  brief  announcement:  "  Every  one  shall  slay  his  guest.'" 
The  strangers,  being  unwarned  and  dispersed,  were  murdered  singly.' 
Even  as  late  as  June  9,  1685,  the  fiery  cross  was  sent,  by  order  of  govern- 
ment, through  the  west  of  Fife  and  Kinross,  that  all  between  sixteen 
and  sixty  might  rise  and  oppose  Argyle.'  It  is  said  also  to  have  been 
circulated  in  some  parts  of  Scotland  in  1745,  but  without  effect. 

The  cross  was  held  in  high  reverence  in  the  religious  rites  of  tlie 
Druids.  In  the  consecration  of  their  holy  oaks,  the  trees  were  made 
r,  cruciform  either  by  being  lopped  in  the  desired  shape,  or 

Cross  among  .'Git  x^    ' 

the  Druids.  j^y  jj^g  insertion  of  other  branches.     At  the  intersection  of 

the  arms  the  word  Thau,  or  God,  was  inscribed,  on  the  right  Hesus,  on 
the  left  Helenus,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  trunk  Tharnis,  the  names  of 
the  Druidical  triad.'     In  Charnwood  Forest,  Leicestershire,  England,  is 

'  Herbert,  Iceland  Poetry,  pt.  i. 

"  Lady  of  the  Lake,  canto  iii.,  stanzas  viii-xxi. 

'  Worsaae,  Danes  and  A'ortcuxians  in  England,  p.  293. 

*  "  Diary  of  LordFountainhall,  1680  to  1701,"  Forsyth,  Antiquarian  Portfolio,  vol.  i.,  p.  351. 

'  Borlase,  Antiquities  of  Cornwall,  p.  108  ;  Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities,  vol.  vi.,  p.  49. 
The  cutting  of  the  mistletoe  is  too  significant  to  be  passed  without  notice.  The  fete  was  on  the 
sixth  day  of  the  moon.  (Christ  suffered  on  the  sixth  day,  at  the  sixth  hour,  and  that  number  has 
always  been  considered  symbolical  of  suffering,  hence  even  the  chalice  to  hold  the  my.stical 
blood  represents  the  number  in  the  form  of  its  foot.)  The  mistletoe  was  sought  for  upon  an  oak 
of  about  thirty  years  growth.  (Christ  was  about  thirty  when  He  bore  His  cross.)  When  the 
oak  was  found,  a  triangular  altar  was  raised.  In  the  procession  the  Eubagi  marched  first,  con- 
ducting two  white  bulls  which  had  never  borne  the  yoke,  then  followed  the  bards  chanting  hymns 
to  God.  Next  came  the  novices,  students,  and  disciples,  accompanied  by  a  herald  clothed  in 
white.  These  were  followed  by  the  most  ancient  pontiffs,  one  carrying  the  bread  which  was  to 
be  offered  ;  the  second  two  bearing  two  vessels  filled  with  7vine  and  water  ;  the  third  a  wand 
terminating  in  a  hand  of  ivory  representing  Justice  and  Power.  Next  came  the  clergy,  preceded 
by  the  supreme  pontiff,  in  a  white  robe,  and  a  girdle  of  gold,  and  the  procession  was  closed  by 
nobles  and  people.  Having  arrived  at  the  oak,  prayers  were  offered,  and  a  burnt  offering  of 
some  of  the  liread,  wine,  and  w.itcr.     The  remainder  of  these  elements  was  distributed  among 


hell 

of  which 

was 

Fva- 

Z 

A_' 

L. 

^ 

A_ 

<■> 

o 

JL 

O 

j«_ 

'/ 

c^ 


Before  the  Christian  Era  31 

an  oak,  known  as  the  Copt,  or  coppetl  oak,  the  outer  s 
in  existence  about  fift)-  years  ago,  and  was  evidently 
one  of  the  Druidic  Thaus;  it  is  prt)bably  more  than 
two  thousand  years  old.' 

Some  of   the   remains  of  what    arc  presumed  to 

the  priests.     The  celelirant  then  ascended      ^/^  / 
the  tree  and  cut  off,  with  a  golden  sickle,  c 

the  mistletoe,  one  of  the  principal  priests 
receiving  it  with   great   reverence.     The  . 

supreme  pontiff,  aided  by  others,  immo- 
lated the  two  bulls,  and  the  ceremonv 
concluded  by  the  prayer  that  God's  bene-     "^  ^ 

diction  would  rest  upon      jj^,.^,         ^        ,,,..D 
the  gift  to  be  distributed  ^ 

among  the  people,  then  prostrate  u|ion  the     \    ^    b  ^ 

ground.      The   inferior  order    of   Druids        ^E^ 

then    distributed   portions   of   the   sacred        ^    ^  Q> 

mistletoe,  some  of  which  were  sent  to  the  fL 

temples,  and  some  were  worn  as  amulets  ^^ 

against  sickness,  evil  spirits,  thunder,  etc.  ^_^ 

Manet,   A'otcs  and  Queries,  3d  ser.,  iv.,  C^ 

P-  485.  ^  ' 

The  Druidical  name  of  the  mistlotoe,  ^  a^ 

"  All  Heal,"   is   significant.     Its  British  ^ 

name,    Gui,    signifying    spirit,    life,    the  ,  ^  Jk 

spirit  of  healing  and  divination.     There  «  ^ 

seems  to  be  an  underlying  tradition  of  the  a  « 

prophetic  value  of  a  branch  which  was  to  »  a  ^ 

have  healing  powers,  as  Zechariah   fore-  »  * 

tells:    "  Behold  I  will  bring  forth  my  ser-  •  • 

vznt  i\\e  branch."     Zech.  iii.,   8.     It  was  •  * 
a  branch  which  sweetened  the  waters  of 


el 


/t- 


• 


Mara.     Even  the  golden  branch  of  Virgil,  I\i        n 

and  other   mythological    traditions,    may  jr 

point  to  the  "  religious  branch  "  foretold 

by  the    prophets,   as  springing  from   the  n^^l   AI  c^» 

"  stem  of   Jesse."     Again,   the  mistletoe  \^. 

was  of  a  different  nature  from  the  oak  on  —  _  /"B 

which  it  grew.     A  mystical  representation 

of  the  expected  Saviour,  the  "  All  Heal"  •** 

taking  another   nature   than    that   which 

belonged  to  him  by  prior  generation,  ;'.<•., 

the  grafting  of  the  human  upon  the  divine  ^j 


IX 


*. 


nature.      The   oak    itself   was    sacred   to 
God,   the   name  in    Hebrew,   Ale/i, 

having   the    same   root    as    divinity  s    10        20  to 

itself.     Lysons,  Our  British  Ances- 
tors, pp.  igg,  201. 

'  Dudley,  Naohgy,  p.  136.  ^1. 


A. 

Cruciform  Druidical  Temple.     From  Higgins's  Ce/tic  Druids. 


32  History  of  the  Cross 

have  been  their  temples  are  cruciform.  An  example  is  found  near  Class- 
ernis,  in  the  island  of  Lewes.  Thirty-nine  massive  stones  form  the  longer 
„     .,  limb  of  the  cross,  thirteen  the  circle,  in  all  fifty-two;  twelve 

Cruciform  '  y  ' 

Temples.  composc  the  head  and  arms.     The  stones  are  from  four  to 

seven  feet  in  height,  except  the  centre  one,  which  is  thirteen.  The  diam- 
eter of  the  circle  is  sixty-three  feet;  the  length  of  the  cross  at  present  is 
five  hundred  and  eighty-five  feet,  formerly  it  was  seven  hundred;  the 
length  of  the  arms  is  two  hundred  and  four  feet.' 

The  Druids  considered  that  the  long  arm  of  the  cross  symbolized  the 
way   of    life;  the   short    arms   the  three  conditions  of  the 

Symbolism.  .    .  .  i    tt     11   2 

spirit  world,  equivalent  to  Heaven.  rurgator\-,  and  Hell. 
According   to  enthusiastic   Irish  antiquarians,   their  cave,    or   rather 
subterranean    mound,    temples    are    more    ancient    than    any   other  ec- 
clesiastical   remains    in    Great    Britain.      One    of    the    best 

Cross  in  Ireland.  .  ,•     t>t  /-  t^  1        ,  •        ,  1 

known    is    that    of    JNiew    Grange,    near    Urogheda,    m  the 

county  of  Meath.      It  is  formed  of  vast  stones  covered  with  earth.     The 

ground  plan   is  cruciform.,  about  eighty  feet  in  length   by 

New  Grange.  ... 

twenty-one  in  the  transverse.  The  height  of  the  gallery,  at 
the  entrance  about  two  feet,  gradually  increases  until  it  becomes  nine. 
The  temple  appears  to  have  been  dedicated  to  Thor,  Odin,  and  Friga.' 
Valiancy  considered  the  inscriptions,  in  Ogham  and  symbolic  characters, 
the  most  ancient  in  Ireland.  He  translated  that  on  the  right  of  the  long 
arm  of  the  cross,  "  The  Supreme  Being,"  or"  Active  Principle."  On 
the  same  side,  thrice  repeated,  are  cliaracters  of  a  somewhat  like  import, 
signifying  "  The  Great  Eternal  Spirit."  On  the  "  covering  stone  "  of 
the  east  transept  is,  "  To  the  great  Mother  Ops,"  or  "  Nature."  In 
front  of  the  head  of  the  cross  is  "  Chance,  Fate,  or  Providence."  On 
the  north  stone  of  the  west  transept  is,  "  The  sepulchre  of  the  Hero,"  on 
a  stone  on  the  left  of  the  gallery  are  "  men,  oxen,  and  swine,  probably 
signifying  the  several  species  of  victims  sacrificed  at  tliis  temple  in  honor 
of  universal  Nature,  Providence,  and  tiie  names  of  the  hero  interred 
within."  Vallency  supposes  that  this  tumulus  was  erected  towards  the 
close  of  the  second  century.'  If  not  pre-Christian,  it  is  at  least  the  work 
of  men  who  knew  nothing  of  Christianity.' 

'  Toland,  Hist,  of  the  Druids^  p.  136.  '  Gould,  AfylJis,  vol.  ii.,  p.  86. 

'Wright,  /.out/liana,  p.  15. 

*  Valiancy,  "Col.  Rel.  llib.,"  vol.  ii.,  p.  211,  quoted  in  Higgins,  Cfltic  Druids,  p.  xliii. 

*  For  full  description  sec  Fcrgusson's  h'lide  Stone  Monuments. 


34  History  of  the  Cross 

In  the  neighborhood  of  New  Grange  are  two  other  mounds,  known  as 

the  Hills  of  Nowth  and  Dowth.     The  latter  was  explored  in  1847.      It 

resembled  New  Grange,  and  within  its  chamber  is  a  quad- 

Nowth  and  ^  ^ 

Dowth.  rangular    stone  covered    with    carvings,   among  which  the 

cross  is  conspicuous.' 

The  Tau  cross,  according  to  McCulloch,  was  known  among  the  an- 
cient Irish  as  the  symbol  of  Wisdom. 

Section  4.     In  America. — We  might  slightly  alter  Bishop  Berkeley's 
famous  prophecy,  adapting  it  as  a  fact,  that 

America. 

"  Westward  the  '  Cross'  of  empire  takes  its  way  " — 

for,  in  passing  from  the  Old  to  the  New  World,  we  find  that  the  cross 
rules  almost  from  Behring's  Straits  to  Cape  Horn.  It  has  been  found 
from  Oregon  to  Patagonia. 

When  the  Spaniards  first  landed  in  Mexico  and  Central  America 
"  They  could  not  suppress  their  wonder,"  says  Prescott,  "  as  they  be- 
,    ,.    .         .      held  the  cross,  the  sacred  emblem  of  their  own  faith,  raised 

In  Mexico  and  '  ' 

Central  America,  gg  ^,^  object  of  worship  in  the  tcmples  of  Anahuac."' 
Even  among  the  relics  of  nations  whose  existence  had  been  forgotten  by 
those  who  then  inhabited  their  lands,  the  cross  had  been  adored.  Pal- 
enque  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  Votan  in  the  ninth  century 
before  the  Christian  era.  One  of  the  principal  buildings  in  that  city  is  a 
palace,  or  temple,  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  feet  long  by  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  feet  in  width,  and  forty  feet  high.  At  the  back  of  one 
of  its  altars,  sculptLired  on  a  slab  of  gypsum,  is  a  cross  ten  feet  high, 
richly  decorated  with  symbolic  figures.  On  the  lower  limb  is  a  fish,  re- 
minding us  of  that  Christian  symbol  in  the  Catacombs  of  Rome  ;  above 
the  cross  sits  a  bird,  which  Stephens  thinks  is  the  Ziiitzitizilian,  or  hum- 
ming-bird of  the  Mexicans,  which  corresponds,  in  their  traditions  of  the 
deluge,  to  the  dove  of  Noah;  but  Gould  considei's  it  the  eagle,  Nisroch, 
or  rain  cloud,  already  noticed  on  the  cylinders  of  Babylon.  On  each 
side  of  the  cross  is  a  human  figure,  one  of  which  holds  up  a  child  to  the 
<:ross.     The  garments  of  tlie  three  are  profusely  decorated  with  crosses.' 

'  Wakeman,  Handbook  of  [risli  Antiqutics,  chaps,  iii.,  iv. 
'  I'rcscotl,  Con(]ui-sl  of  Mexico,  vol.,  iii.,  pp.  383,  384. 
''Stephens,  Central  America,  vol.  ii.,  p.  351. 


mmmmmmwa^s^^^ 


m¥Mmm£^7^:j3mm^ 


u 


36 


History  of  the  Cross 


The  same  cross  is  represented  on  old  pre-Mexican  MSS. ,  as  in  the 
Dresden  Codex,  and  that  in  possession  of  Herr  Fejervary,  at  the  end  of 
which  is  a  colossal  cross,  upon  which  is  represented  a  bleeding  deity,  and 
figures  stand  around  a  Tau  cross  upon  which  is  perched  the  sacred 
bird."  ■ 

The  Spaniards  also  found  Tau  crosses  of  metal, ^  but  whether  used  as 
ornaments,  or  amulets,  they  appear  to  be  ignorant.  The  Tau  is  figured 
upon  the  breasts  of  bronze  statuettes  of  unknown  antiquity  which  have 
recently  been  disinterred  in  the  cemetery  of  Juygalpa,  in  Nicaragua.' 

Throughout  the  whole  of  Mexico  we  find 
this  veneration  of  the  cross.  It  occurs  in  the 
north  among  the  Mixtecas  and  in  Quere- 
daro.  An  Indian  cross  was  found  in  the 
cave  of  Mixteca  Baja,  and  similar  ones  were 
discovered  among  the  ruins  on  the  island  of 
Zaputero  in  Lake  Nicaragua.  White  marble 
crosses  were  found  on  the  island  of  S.  Ulloa, 
and  wooden  ones  in  Acjuatolco  and  among 
the  Zapotecas.'' 

In  Oajaca,  there  was  a  cross  which  the 
natives  liad  reverenced   as  a  divine  symbol 
from  time  immemorial.     ]-5y  or- 
der of  the  Bishop  of  Cervantes, 
it    was    placed    in    a    sumptuous 
chapel  in  the  cathedral,  and  infor- 
mation  concerning   its  discovery, 
together  with  a  cup  cut   from   its 


Cross  in  Oajaca. 


Cross  found  at  Palciir[ue. 
From  Wilson's  Mexico. 


wood,  was  sent  to  Paul  V.   at   Rome,  who  received  it  upon  his  knees, 
singing  the  hymn  \\-xilla  Regis." 

In  Cholula  there  is  a  temple  which  its  discoverers  presumed  to  be 
dedicated  to  the  worship  of  the  cross,"  and   in   the  "  Casas  de  Piedras  in 

'  (;oiil<i.  Myllis.  vol.  ii.,  p.  io6. 

'  Kin;sborough,  A/fxico,  vol,  vi.,  p.  420. 

'  Boyle,  Jiiiie  .4cross  n  Continent,  vol.  i.,  ]>.  161. 

*  Gould,  lifyt/is,  vol.  ii.,  p.  107. 

'  Caldcran,  I.i/e  in  Mexico,  Letter  37.  Tlic  cross  of  Cozumcl  niii;hl  als.i  be  instanced. 
Stephens  thinks  it  of  Spanish  origin,  Yucatan,  vol.  ii.,  chap.  20 ;  but  I'rescott  considers  it  native, 
Mexico,  vol.  iii.,  p.  334. 

'  Kingsborough,  Mexico,  vol.  vi.,  p.  418. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  ^7 

Chiapa  some  of  the  windows  arc  in  liic  form  of  the  Greek  cross,  and  on 
the  wall  of  one  of  the  apartments  is  a  tablet  of  sculptured  stone,  ex- 
hibiting the  figure  of  a  large  and  richly  ornamented  cross 

,  ,  In  Cholula. 

placed  upon  an  altar  or  pedestal.  kingsborough   gives 

a  curious  example  of  a  cross  with  a  skull  at  the  foot  similar  to  the  medi- 

aival  crucifixes  in  the  Eastern   Hemisphere." 

Nor  are  cave  temples  wanting  to  complete  the  resemblance  to  the 
Eastern  Hemisphere.  One  at  Mitia,  "  the  city  of  the  moon,"  has  been 
hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  its  limbs  being  one  hundred  and  cruciform 

twenty-three  feet  in  length,  and  about  twenty-five  in  width.  ^"^  '""p '=^- 
Upon  the  walls  the  figure  of  a  perfect  Maltese  (Greek?)  cross  is  carved.' 

Upon  certain  high  festivals,  the  Mexicans  made  crosses  out  of  Indian 
corn  and  the  blood  of  their  sacrificial  victims.  These  were  first  wor- 
shipped, and  afterwards  broken  and  distributed  among  the 

Cruciform  Cake. 

worshippers,  who  ate  them  as  a  symbol  of  union  and  brother- 
hood. Such  close  resemblance  to  the  Sacrament  of  the  holy  Eucharist 
probably  led  the  Spaniards  to  think  that  S.  Thomas  and  his  disciples  had 
found  the  way  from  India  to  these  countries.*  But  not  only  the  type  of 
one  sacrament  was  practised  by  the  natives  previous  to  the  arrival  of  the 
Spaniards,  but  also  even  a  rite  of  baptism.' 

The  sepulchres  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America    were    generally   cruciform."     Uu    Paix  gives  a  number  of  in- 

'  Bradford,  American  Antiquilies,  p.  8l. 

'  Kingsborough,  Mexico,  vol.  ii.,  pi.  37. 

^  Ibid.,  vol.  vi. ,  p.  429. 

■*  Prescott,  Mexico,  vol.  i.,  p.  60;  vol.  ii.,  p.  5  ;  vol.  iii.,  pp.  383-386.  The  last  syllable  of 
Quetzacoatl  signifies  a  twin.  By  some  confusion  of  ideas,  probably,  the  Spanish  writers  sup- 
posed this  intimated  Didymus,  /.  e.,  Thomas. 

^  "  Their  surprise  was  heightened,  when  they  witnessed  a  religious  rite  which  reminded 
them  of  the  Christian  Communion.  On  these  occasions,  an  image  of  the  tutelary  deity  of  the 
Aztecs  was  made  of  the  flour  of  maize  mixed  with  blood,  and,  after  consecration  by  the  priests, 
was  distributed  among  the  people,  who,  as  they  ate  it,  showed  signs  of  humiliation  and  sorrow, 
declaring  it  was  the  flesh  of  the  deity.  How  could  the  Roman  Catholic  fail  to  recognize  the 
awful  ceremony  of  the  Eucharist?  With  the  same  feelings  they  witnessed  another  ceremony, 
that  of  the  Aztec  baptism,  in  which,  after  a  solemn  invocation,  the  head  and  lips  of  the  infant 
were  touched  with  water  and  a  name  given  to  it,  while  the  goddess  Civacoatl,  who  presided  over 
child-birth,  was  implored  that  the  sin  which  was  given  to  us  before  the  beginning  of  the  world, 
might  not  visit  the  child,  but  that,  cleansed  by  these  waters,  it  might  live  and  be  horn  anew." 
"  The  Spaniards  were  not  aware,"  continues  Prescott,  "  that  the  cross  was  the  symbol  of  wor- 
ship of  the  highest  antiquity  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  that  rites  resembling  those  of  Communion 
an  1  Baptism  were  practised  by  pagan  nations  on  whom  the  light  of  Christianity  had  never 
shone."      Prescott,  Mexico,  vol.  iii..  pp.  383-387. 

•*  Squier,  Serpent  Svmbol  in  America,   pp.  9S-100. 


38 


History  of  the  Cross 


GEEBF 


Cruciform 
Sepulchres. 


stances.      From  ]Mitlan,  or  "  the  palace  of  the  dead,"  from  the  structure 
upon  the  commencement  of  the   Mijian   Mountains,  from  the  town   of 

Chila  on  the  summit  of  the 
mountain  called  Tortuga, 
and  elsewhere,  do  not  these  witnesses  in- 
timate a  belief  in  tlie  Resurrection  by 
mcans  of  the  truth  hidden  in  the  sacred 
symbol  ?  And  is  not  this  confirmed  by 
the  ancient  Mexican  names  for  the  cross  ? 
The  "  Tree  of  Nutriment,"  the  "  Tree  of 
our  Flesh,"  the  "  Tree  of  Life  "  I '  And 
that  this  symbol  was  placed  on  their  tombs 
and  temples  shows  that  the  significance 
was  not  limited  to  this  life  only  ! 


^^^^S'w  ,-^. 


Plan  of  Sepulchral  Chamber  at  Mitlan. 
From  Squier's  St-rpeni  Symbol. 


Section  of  Sepulchral  Chamber  at  Mitlan.     From  Squier's  Serpent  Symbol. 


Plan  and  Section  of  Sepulchral  Chamlier  at  Chila,  Mexico.     From  Squier's  Serpent  Symbol. 

A  tradition   a])])cars  to  have  been  common  throughout  Mexico  and 
Central  America,  that  a  nation,  bearded  and  white,  bearing  the  cro.ss, 

'  Brinton,  Myths  of  the  New  World,  pp.  95.  g6. 


Before  the  Christian  Hra  39 

should  come  from  a  ilistant  land;  hence  in  many  places  the  Spaniards 
were  welcomed  as  expected  guests,  the  priests  informing  them  that  an- 
cient prophecies  had  foretold  the  coming  of  a  nation  bearing        ^    j.  . 

'I  '^  *=  Traditions  of 

the  sacred  sign,  and  that  their  own  religion  would  disappear  strangers  bring- 

^  *=  '  '  ing  the  Cross. 

before  it.'  In  Yucatan,  the  early  Roman  Catholic  mission- 
aries have  preserved  some  of  the  hymns  of  the  natives  in  which  these 
ancient  traditions  have  been  embodied.  Admitting  all  due  allowance  for 
the  religious  bias  of  the  missionaries  in  their  translation  of  the  native 
chants,  yet  the  substratum  of  truth  is  acknowledged  by  early  historians. 
We  quote  a  translation,  said  to  be  literal,  of  one  hymn  as  an  example: 

"  At  the  close  of  the  thirteentli  Age  of  the  world, 
While  the  cities  of  Itza  and  Tancah  still  flourish, 
The  sijr»  of  the  Lord  of  the  Sky  will  appear, 
The  light  of  the  dawn  will  illumine  the  land, 
And  the  Cross  will  be  seen  by  the  nations  of  men. 
A  father  to  you  will  He  be,  Itzalanos, 
A  brother  to  you,  ye  nations  of  Tancah, 
Receive  well  the  bearded  guests  who  are  coming, 
Rringing  the  siirii  of  the  Lord  from  the  daybreak. 
Of  the  I^ord  of  the  Sky,  so  clement  yet  powerful." 

This  is  said  to  have  been  composed  about  1450,  therefore  before  the 
arrival  of  the  Europeans,  and  was  used  throughout  Yucatan.' 

Although  the  ancient  ofificial  annals  of  Mexico  were  destroyed  by  the 
Spanish  invaders,  yet  tradition  and  early  histories  have  preserved  the 
outlines.      Successively  the  country  has  been  occupied  by 

Antiquity  of 

the  Chichimecs,  the  Colhuas,  the  Toltecs  or  Nahuas,  and  Mexican 

1  A  1111  1  •     1       1    ■  r  Customs. 

the  Aztecs,  who  had  been  the  inhabitants  for  more  than 
two  centuries  before  they  were  conquered  by  Cortez.  Advanced  as  they 
were  in  civilization,  still,  in  some  respects,  they  were  behind  their  pre- 
decessors. In  architecture,  they  were  surpassed  by  the  Toltecs  and 
Colhuas.  The  former  of  these  occupied  the  land  more  than  a  thousand 
years  before  the  Christian  era.'    How  much  more  ancient  were  their  pre- 

'  Stephens,    Yucatmi.  vol.  ii  ,  p.  377.      Kingsbnroiigh,  Mcwico,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  41S-420. 

''  Lizana,  Hist,  de  A''iifslra  Sfi'iora  lie  Itzamal,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  i  ;  Brasseur,  Hist,  dii  Mc.xique, 
ii.,  p.  605,  quoted  in  Biinton's  Myths,  p.  222. 

'•  Brasseur  de  Bourbourg  says  :  "  In  the  histories  written  in  the  Nahualt  language,  the  oldest 
certain  date  is  955  years  before  Christ."  It  is  quoted  from  the  Codex  Chimalpopaca,  and  refers  to 
a  division  of  land,  and  it  shows  that  they  had  been  settlers  in  the  land  long  before  the  civil  war 
made  this  necessary.  Quoted  in  Baldwin's  Ancient  America,  p.  204.  Baldwin  examines  the 
subject  of  Antiquity  more  fully  than  these  pages  will  allow. 


40  History  of  the  Cross 

decessors,  the  Colhuas,  we  have  not  the  means  at  hand  for  ascertaining. 
Concerning  their  edifices,  Eubank  writes:  "  I  am  not  aware  that  there 
has  been  even  a  conjecture  as  to  the  date  of  these  ruins.  The  concentric 
circles  of  some  trees  growing  upon  them  mark  973  years,  but  how  many 
centuries  had  elapsed  from  the  ruin  and  desolation  of  the  city,  and  for 
the  accumulation  of  the  soil  over  it  ere  this  tree  took  root,  can  only  be 
conjectured."  Waldeck  counted  1609  rings  of  annual  growth  upon  a  tree 
which  he  felled."  ' 

Enough  for  our  purpose  that  they  were  pre-Christian,  and  that  the 

cross  as  an  honored  symbol  appears  frequently  upon  them.     Among  the 

later  Mexicans  the  cross  was  adored  as  the  emblem  of  Ouiateot,  the  god 

of  rain.    An  old  chronicler,  when  describing  a  temple,  saith  : 

Cross,  the  Sym- 
bol of  the  God       "  At  the  foote  of  this  temple  was  a   plotte  like  a  church- 

}'ard,  well  walled  and  garnished,  in  the  midst  wliercof  stoode 
a  crosse  of  ten  foote  long,  the  which  they  adored  for  the  god  of  Rayne, 
for  at  all  times  when  they  wanted  rayne,  they  would  go  thither  in  pro- 
cession devoutly,  and  offer  to  the  crosse  quayles  sacrificed,  for  to  appease 
the  wrath  that  god  seemed  to  have  against  them,  and  none  was  so  ac- 
ceptable a  sacrifice  as  the  blood  of  that  little  birde.  They  used  to  burn 
certain  sweete  gume,  to  perfume  that  god  withall,  and  to  besprinkle  it 
with  water,  and  this  done,  they  believed  assuredly  to  have  rayne."' 
Even  to  our  day  traces  of  this  superstitition  are  preserved  among  the 
Mexican  Indians.  Lieutenant  Whipple,  in  his  exploration  for  the  route 
of  the  Pacific  Railroad  found  boards  erected  bearing  the  Tau  cross,  con- 
secrated, as  he  was  told,  to  the  god  of  rain.* 

Among  the  ancient  Mexicans,  the  showery  month,  Quiahuilt,  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  weeping  god,  Quiateot,  their  Nisroch.  Water, 
as  the  generator,  was  honored  under  the  symbol  of  the  cross  in  Cibola. 
In  Cozumel,  in  time  of  drought,  sacrifices  of  quails  and  incense  were 
offered  to  the  cross,  which  was  taken  from  its  shrine  in  the  temple  and 
borne   in   procession,   as  in   the  ancient   Christian   litanies.      The  Aztecs 

'  Eubank,  Jfydrauliis.  p.  164. 

'  North  Am.  Rev.,  vol.  li.,  p.  428. 

'  The  pleasant  Ilistorii  of  the  conquest  of  West  India,  now  called  New  Spain.  Translated 
out  of  the  Spanish  tongue  by  T.  jV.,  ibjS.  It  is  curious  to  note  the  similarity  of  a  custom  in 
Borera,  one  of  tlie  Hebrides.  A  stone  cross  was  placed  opposite  tlic  Church  of  S.  Mary  called 
the  water  cross.  When  the  islanders  wanted  rain  it  was  erected,  when  they  luid  enough,  it  was 
laid  down.      Martin,   Western  Isles,  p.  59  ;  Brand,  Antiquities,  vol.  iii.,  p.  169. 

'  Whipple,  Rep.  for  Exploration  of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  vol.  iii.,  p.  40. 


Before  the  Christian  Era  41 

offered  a  more  bloody  sacrifice,  crucifying;  youiii^  men  and  maidens,  but, 
with  cruel  mercy,  did  not  suffer  them  to  die  upon  the  cross,  but  put  thein 
to  death  with  arrows.  The  Aztec  goddess  of  rain  bore  a  cross  in  her 
hand,  and  the  Tohecs  claimed  that  their  deit\-,  Quetzalcoatl,  taught 
them  the  sign  and  ritual  of  the  cross,  hence  his  staff,  or  sceptre  of  power, 
resembled  a  crosier,  and  his  mantle  was  covered  with  red  crosses.' 

The  actual  cross  was  also  used  as  an  instrument  of  punishment  in 
Mexico,  and,  at  times,  with  a  refinement  of  cruelty  unknown  in  the 
Eastern    Hemisphere.      The    Itz.'Exes,   a   tribe  in   Yucatan, 

The  Cross  as  an 

enclosed  the  criminal  in  <i  metallic  cross,  which  was  heated       instrument  of 

•11      1  1  ■         1    -J         A  1  AT         ■  •       ,  Punishment. 

till  the  poor  wretch  expired.       Among  the  Mexicans,  judg- 
ing from  their  pictures  and  MSS.,  it  would  appear  that  tlie  usual  form  of 
the  cross  of  death  was  the  S.  Andrew's,  or  Saltire.' 

South  America  probably  was  indebted  for  her  religion  to  the  same 
race  who  populated  Mexico,  for  we  find  the  Mexican  cross  in  Popoyan 
and  Cundinamarco,   in  New  Granada.'     Amon<j  the   Muy-      _       .    e    ... 

'  o  -  Cross  in  South 

seas  in  Cumana  it  was  adored,  and  mothers  placed  their  new-  America, 

born  children  under  its  protection'  against  evil  spirits.'  When  the 
Muyscas  sacrificed  to  the  deity  of  water,  they  stretched  cords  across  a 
lake,  forming  a  cross,  and  at  the  intersection  threw  in  offerings  of  gold, 
emeralds,  and  precious  oils." 

In  an  ancient  liuaco,  or  catacomb,  there  was  found  a  syrinx,  or  pan- 
dean  pipes,  cut  out  of  a  mass  of  lapis  o/laris,  the  sides  were  decorated 
with  Maltese  (Greek  ?)  crosses  and  other  symbols  resembling 
Egyptian.  The  Incas  reverenced  a  cross  made  out  of  a 
simple  piece  of  jasper  which  had  been  bequeathed  to  them  by  an  earlier 
people.'  Upon  the  side  of  one  of  the  little  hills  which  skirt  Pisco  Bay 
is  an  immense  cross,  about  one  hundred  feet  high,  formed  of  stones  in- 
laid in  the  rock.  According  to  the  native  priests,  it  was  miraculously 
made  b)-  an  angel  to  warn  Pizarro  from  his  wicked  tyranny."  Doubtless, 
the  tradition  is  much  younger  than  the  cross;  and  the  Peruvians  had 
learned  enough  from  their  conquerors  from  the  old  Christian  world  to 

'  Gould,  Myths,  vol.  ii.,  p.  loS  ;   Brinton,  Myths,  etc.,  pp.  95,  96. 

'  Wakleck,  p.  24,  quoted  in  Bradford's  Am.  Antiqs.,  p.  293. 

"  Kingsborough,  Mexico,  vol.  ii.,  p.  37  ;  iii.,  pp.  I,  43,  66. 

*  Brinton,  Myths,  etc.,  p.  95.  '  Trans.  Royal  Soc,  Edin.,  vol.  xx.,  p.  121. 

'  Gould,  Myths,  vol.  ii.,  p.  107.  *  Gould,  Myths,  vol,  ii.,  p.  107. 

'  Brinlon,  Myths,  p.  96,  '  Schoolcraft,  Indian  Tribes,  part  v.,  p.  659. 


42 


History  of  the  Cross 


invent  a  story  fitting  for  the  time  to  a  marvel.  A  cross  also  once 
adorned  the  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Cuzco,  and  a  massive  one  of  marble 
was  found  within  a  shrine  in  that  city.  Vega  testifies  that  "  although 
the  cross  was  not  worshipped,  yet  it  was  held  in  great  veneration."' 
Crosses  of  copper,  probably  worn  as  amulets,  were  common. 

Still  farther  south,   Martin   Dobrizhoffer  writes  of  a  nation  in  Para- 
guay:  "  I  saw  not  only  a  cross  marked  on  the  foreheads  of  the  Abipones 
but  likewise  black  crosses  woven  in  the  red   woollen   gar- 

Cross  in  ^ 

Paraguay.  mcHts  of  man}'.      It  is  a  surprising  circumstance  that  they 

did  this  before  they  were  acquainted  with  the  religion  of  Christ,  when 


Emblems  Fountl  in  the  Mounds  in  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  Valleys. 
From  Blake's  The  Cross,  Ancient  anr/  Alodfrii. 

the  signification  and  merits  of  the  cross  were  unknown  to  them.     This 

custom  was  handed  down  from  their  ancestors."  " 

Even  in  the  extreme  hounds  of  the  continent  the  Patagonians  tat- 

'  From  vol.  i.,  p.  65  ;  vol.  ii.,  pp.  467,  46S. 

'  Dobrizhoffer,  Account  0/  the  Abipones,  vol.  ii.,  p.  20. 


Before  the  Christian  lira 


43 


tooc'd  the  holy  sign  upon  tlicir  forelicads,  because  it  was  a  custom  trans- 
mitted from  their  forefathers    "  not  derived  from  Spaniards."  ' 

Among  the  ruder  nations  of  the  Northern  Continent  are  found  abo- 
riginal relics  of  the  cross.  The  Mississippi  Valley  is  rich  in  Indian 
remains.  Curiously  shaped  pieces  of  galena,  which  at  first  cross  among 
Avcre  presumed  to  be  money,  but  by  modern  archaeologists  xribes  o'f  Nort" 
are    pronounced    to   be   either    ornaments   or  medals,    have  America, 

been  found  marked  with  the  crux  aiisata,  and  a  vase  containing,  among 
other    relics,   a    coin    or    medal  _-^-._.    -,      - -■-,    ."Vi_--^aL-_ 

bearing  a  cross  crosslet,  was  dug         -^^^^^RNjIffcSiMl 
up  in  1844,  near  Natchez." 

The  mounds  in  the  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  valleys  are  of  vari- 
ous shapes.  Some  resemble  the 
human  figure,  some  animals, 
some  serpents;  for  instance,  an 
elevation  in  Adams 
County,  Ohio,  repre- 
sents a  serpent  seven  hundred 
feet  long  swallowing  an  egg°; 
others  are  circular,  and  many  are 
cruciform.    The  circular  mounds 


Cruciform 
Mounds. 


Temple  Mound,  Lovedale,  Kentucky. 
From  St|uier's  Serpc'/it  Synidoi  in  Anwrica. 


may  have  been  used  as  forts  or  habitations,  and  the  forms  of  the  others 
indicate  their  object.  The  cruciform  mounds,  ill  adapted  for  fortification 
or  habitation,  must  have  been  erected  for  some  other  purpose.  Is  it  not 
likely  that  they  were  erected  for  sacrificial  or  religious  intent  ?  Mounds  of 
a  similar  shape  are  not  confined  to  this  countr\',  and  ci\'ilization  has,  doubt- 
less, obliterated  many  in  the  Eastern  Continent.  But  the  great  resem- 
blance between  those  of  widely  separated  countries  should  be  noted. 

As  to  the  antiquity  of  these  it  is  impossible  even  to  conjecture,  as 
they  are  the  work  of  nations  who  lived  so  long  before  the  race  of  Indians 
who  inhabited  this  country  when  visited  b\-  Europeans, 
that  even  all  tradition  of  them  had  been  lost.  The  mound- 
builders  were   far   more   advanced  in  civilization  than  their  successors. 


Their  Antiquity. 


'  Kini^  and  Fitzroy,  Xarrative  of  Tin   Years'   ^'oyage,  vol.  i.,  p,  90. 

'  Dickeson,  Am.    Nutnistnatic  Manual,   pi.   iv.,   figs,    i,    ri,   p.  43.     Dr.   Anlhon,   in  the 
Numismatic  and  Archa:ologii:al  Journal,  lS6(),  decides  against  their  being  coins. 
'  Squier,  Ancient  Monuments  in  the  Mississippi  Valley,  p.  98, 


44 


History  of  the  Cross 


Many  centuries  must  have  elapsed  before  their  once  cultivated  fields, 
villages,  and  mounds  were  covered  with  the  immense  forests  through 
which  the  later  red  man  roved  and  hunted  when  the  white  man  first 
visited  him.  General  Harrison  has  shown  that  the  great  diversity  of 
species  of  trees  plainly  indicates  that  the  forests  which  still  cover  many 
of  these  sites  are  of  second  growth,  as  the  primitive  forests  are  more 
generally  of  one  or  of  a  few  species.  Yet  there  are  patriarchs,  for  Sir 
Charles  Lyell  mentions  that  eight  hundred  rings  were  counted  in  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  growing  on  a  mound  at  Marietta. 

Again,  the  skeletons  of  the  mound-builders  show,  by  their  extreme 

decay,  immense  age.  Human  remains 
found  near  the  surface  are  supposed  to 
bi?  those  of  later  Indians.  The  original 
dwellers  in  the  land  are  interred  always 
within  the  mounds,  or  near  the  bottom, 
and  these  are  so  decayed  as  to  crumble 
to  pieces  on  removal.  Indeed,  only  one 
skull  of  a  mound-builder  has  been  pre- 
served.' Yet  we  know  that  human 
skeletons,  sound  and  well  preserved, 
and  known  to  be  nearly  two  thousand 
years  old,  have  been  found  in  England, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe,  although  that  damp  soil  has  been  less  fitted 
for  preservation  than  the  dry,  compact  earth  of  the  mounds. 

Other  proofs  of  antiquity  might  be  adduced,  such  as  the  changes 
marked  by  the  water-courses,  and  the  evidence  of  the  copper  mines  which 
show  that  they  had  been  worked  for  a  long  period  before  their  desertion, 
and  yet,  perhaps  a  still  longer  one  has  passed  since  then,  as  evinced  by 
the  immense  forest  growth;  but  it  is  needless  to  multipK- proof.  We 
have  only  room  to  instance  a  few  examples.'^ 

In  Tarleton,  (^hin,  is  a  mound  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross.  Its 
arms,  ninety  feet  in  length  by  three  in  height,  are  turned  toward  the 
cardinal  points  of  the  compass.'     It  resembles  an  earthwork  in  the  \illage 


Temple  Mound,  Marietta,  Ohio. 
From  Squier's  Scrpt-nt  Symbol  in  America. 


'  At  a  meeting  of  the  American  Association  lielil  at  Ihniuc|iu-,  August  2O,  1S72,  reported  in 
the  Tribune,  several  other  skulls  were  shown,  but  it  seems  doubtful  if  they  were  of  the  original 
mound-builders.  Their  successors  buried  their  dead  in  the  mounds,  hut  nearer  the  surface. 
— N.   V.   Tribune,  August  27,  1872.  -  B.aldwin,  Ancient  America,  chaps,  i.,  ii.,  iii. 

'  Squier,  Ancient  Monuments  in  Mississippi  Valley,  p.  98. 


Before  the  Christian  Era 


45 


Mounds  in  Ohio. 


Roman  Mound  near  Bmwell, 

Wiltshire,  England. 

From  '6<\\\\<:rs  A iitiipiilies of  .Vew 

York  am/  I  hi'  ll'isl. 


of  Bainvcll,  Ens^laiid.  Anotlicr  jjn>i)f  of  tlic  iini\'crsality  of  the  cross 
even  in  such  monuments  as  these.  Similar  mounds  are  found  in  Wis- 
consin and  CJregon,  some  with  the  transverse  placed  ob- 
liquely. Doubtless  other  examples  will  be  discovered  west 
of  the  Mississippi,  when  the  archaeologist,  as  well  as  the  sur\-cyor  and 
miner,  explore  that  region. 

The  later  tribes  who  inhabitLcl  the  Atlantic 
States  used  the  figure  of  the  cross  in  their  re- 
litjious  rites.      The  Lenni  Lenai^e, 

°  '■  The  Cross 

once  one  of   the  most   numerous         among  the 

Later  Indians. 

and  widely  spread  tribes  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  in  their  sacrifices  for  rain  placed 
upon  a  figure  of  a  cross  some  red  stuff,  a  gourd, 
and  some  tobacco.  The  Creeks,  at  their  festi- 
val of  the  Busk,  a  feast  celebrated  to  the  four 
winds,  formed  a  cross  out  of  four  logs,  pointing 
to  the  cardinal  points,  and  at  the  intersection  built  a  fire.' 

That  not  a  link  may  be  wanting  in  the  chain  which  binds  all  nations, 
Jew,  Gentile,  and  Pagan,  even  the  islands  between  the  Western  and 
Eastern  Continents  are  hallowed  b\-  the  "  shadow  of  the 

Cross  in  Islands 

Cross."      The  inhabitants  of  the  Gambler  Islands  tattooed         between  the 

Continents. 

themselves  with  this  emblem,  and  the  discoverers  of  the 
Mulgrave  Islands  were  welcomed  by  natives  decorated  with  necklaces 
from  which  crosses  were  suspended. °  So  also  in  the  isles  of  Tonga, 
Viti,  and  Easter.  Two  colossal  statues  from  the  last,  bearing  the  Tau 
upon  their  backs,  are  now  in  the  l^ritish  Museum.  Thus  we  have  com- 
pleted the  circuit  of  the  globe,  and  find  this  holy  symbol  with  a  sacred 
signification  in  ages  far  apart  and  among  nations  widely  separated,  and, 
for  the  most  part,  utterly  ignorant  of  each  other's  existence.'  And  yet 
all  embodying,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  according  to  their  advance  in 
civilization,  the  primal  truth  of  all  religions  adumbrating  the  great  truth 
of  Christianity, — Redemption  by  sacrifice, — symbolized  by  the  Cross. 

'  Brinton,  Myths,  etc.,  p.  qS. 

''  Mavor,    Vogagt's,  vol  x.,  p.  159  ;  Beechey,  iVan-alive,  etc.,  p.  126. 

^  Ec/iii.  Hev.,  vol,  cxxxi.,  p.  231. 


CHAPTER   II 


TYPES   OF   THE   CROSS 


"  *"  I  ^HE  Law  was  a  shadow  of  good  to  come.  This  good  was  Christ; 
i  the  law  was  a  shadow;  when  the  sun  is  behind,  the  shadow  is 
before,  when  the  sun  is  before,  the  shadow  is  behind  :  so  was  it  in  Christ  to 
them  of  old ;  this  Sun  was  behind,  and  therefore  the  Law  or  shadow  was 
before  :  to  us  under  grace  the  Sun  is  before  :  and  so  now  the  shadow  or  cere- 
monies of  the  Law  are  behind.  .  .  .  And  those  that  went  before, 
and  they  that  followed  after,  they  all  sang,  Hosaiiiia  to  t/tc  Son  of  God."  ' 

In  the  present  chapter  the  magnitude  of  the  "  stumbling  block  "  which 
the  Cross  was  to  the  Jews  and  Gentiles  is  explained,  but  the  greatness  of 
the  scandal  did  not  in  one  whit  deter  the  early  teachers  of  Christianity 
from  preaching  Christ,  the  promised  Messiah  crucified,  not  only  literally 
upon  Calvary,  the  abhorred  place  of  execution  for  the  vilest  of  criminals, 
but  also  in  type  and  shadow  in  the  lives  of  the  patriarchs,  and  in  the  Law 
and  the  Prophets.  Even  Justin  Martyr,  although  he  knew  that  he  stirred 
to  its  depths  the  prejudice  of  his  adversary  Tryi^ho,  the  Jew,  especially 
urges  the  manner  of  the  Sacrifice  foreshadowed  by  the  types.  True,  in 
their  desire  to  show  that  all  the  particulars  of  Christ's  death  were  sym- 
bolically set  forth  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  Fathers  resorted  to,  what 
appears  to  us,  strained  and  far-fetched  images,  yet  the  knowledge  of 
these  is  necessary  to  understand  the  expression  of  the  lo\'e  for  Christ 
whicli  is  exhibited  in  the  literature  and  art  of  the  niedi;e\al  ages. 

The  types  of  the  Cross  deduced  from  the  llnly  Scriptures  by  the  early 
Christian  writers  may  be  classified  as:  Those  which  refer  to  the  material 
Classification       of  the  Cross ;  Thosc  wliich  symbolizc  its  form;  ami,    Those 

ypes.  which  shadow  forth   its  triuni})h.^     The  last   class   falls  not 

within  our  ])rovince.      To  (|uote  a  lithe  of  the  references  b}'  the  h'athers 

'  Suttnn,  I.iuii)!  lo  I iri\  cli.ip.  i  ,  sec.   14.  '•'  llaslaiii,  Cross  ami  Serpent,  ]).  187. 

46 


Types  of  the  Cross  47 

relative  to  the  others  would  retiuire  a  folio;  therefore  only  a  few  perti- 
nent extracts  will  be  given. 

Of  the  first  class,  the  most  prominent  in  point  of  time  and  in  im- 
portance, is  the  Tree  of  Life.  "  The  Tree  of  Life,  which  was  planted 
bv  God  in  Paradise,  prefigures  the  precious  Cross,"  writes 

Tree  of  Life. 

Damascenus,  "  for  after  that  death  was  by  the  means  of  a 
Tree,  it  was  needful  tluit  by  a  Tree  should  be  given  Life,  and  the  Resur- 
rection." '     Like  the  Tau  cross,  representations  of  a  sacred  tree,  as  the 
symbolical  source  of  life,  long  preceded  Christianity.     The 

The  Palm. 

palm  {Plianiix  dactylifcra)  was  thus  employed  by  the  Egypt- 
ians, and  by  them  transmitted  to  other  nations.  On  a  stele,  preserved 
in  the  Berlin  Museum,  found  by  Dr.  Lepsius  in  the  village  of  Abousir, 
near  the  Great  Pyramid,  the  palm  is  thus  delineated:  From  its  stem 
proceed  two  arms,  one  administers  fruit  or  the  bread  of  life  to  a  kneel- 
ing person,  the  other  pours  from  a  vase  the  water  of  life  into  the  mouth 
of  the  recipient.  The  date  of  the  stele  is  at  least  fifteen  hundred  years 
before  Christ.  The  sacred  symbolism  of  the  palm  was  recognized  under 
both  dispensations  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Solomon  adorned  the  Tem- 
ple witli  its  representations,  and  to  S.  John  in  Patmos  was  revealed 
"  the  Tree  of  Life  which  bare  twelve  manner  of  fruits,  and  yielded  her 
fruit  every  month,  and  the  leaves  of  the  tree  were  for  the  healing  of  the 
nations  "  (Rev.  xxii.,  2).  So  of  the  palm  it  was  believed  that  it  put  forth 
a  shoot  every  month,  and,  as  its  leaves  were  used  for  writing  purposes, 
the  words  of  the  Gospel  may  have  been  inscribed  upon  them. 

The  early  and  mediaeval  Christian  artists  frequently  represented  the 
Tree  of  Life  as  a  palm.  There  is  an  example  in  the  mosaic  in  the  apse 
of  S.  John  Lateran  at  Rome.  The  tree  is  guarded  by  an  angel.  Upon 
a  branch  is  perched  a  phcenix  (the  symbol  of  immortality),  an  aureole 
surrounding  its  head;  and  the  first  two  persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity 
stand  on  either  side. 

As  the  Cross  was  sometimes  more  than  a  symbol,  being  used  as  synon- 
ymous with  Christ,  so  also  was  the  palm-tree.      In  an  Evangel- 

J  '  c  o  Palm  Synon- 

inni  of  the  ninth  century,  in  the  British  Museum,  a  miniature       ymous  with 

the  Cross. 

represents  the  four  Evangelists  gazing  up  to  a  palm  on  the  top 

of  which  is  placed  the  cross,  with  the  A  and  il  suspended  from  its  arms." 

'  S.  John  Damascenus,  Orthodox  Fidci,  lib.  iv. ,  c.  12. 

=  See  Dr.  Barlow's  able  article  in  The  Builder,  Oct.  30,  1858.  In  the  Assyrian  sculptures 
the  winged  figures  personifying  principles  of  the  Deity  are  placed  on  each  side  of  a  palm-tree, 


48  History  of  the  Cross 

Noah's  ark  is  a  favorite  type  of  the  cross  among  tlic  Fathers.     Justin 
Martyr  says:  "  For  Ciirist,  though  he  was  the  first   begotten  of  every 
creature,  was  also  again  made  tlie  author  of  a  new  race,  who  are  regener- 
ated through  him  by  water  and  faith,  and  wood,  which  was 

Noah's  Ark  a 

Type  of  the  a  type  of  the  cross,  even  as  Noe  was  saved  by  wood,  sailing 
on  the  water  with  his  family.  Wherefore  when  the  prophet 
says,  '  In  the  time  of  Noe  have  I  saved  thee,"  as  I  said  before,  he  speaks 
to  a  people  that  were  faithful  to  God,  and  had  these  types."  ' 

The  next  type  is  derived  from  the  history  of  Isaac.  "  A  clearer  type 
can  scarcely  be  concei\'ed  of  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  in  whom  all 
The  Wood  of  nations  of  earth  were  to  be  blessed,  than  Isaac  was.  .  .  . 
ce.  fi-n-i-efore  Isaac  bearing  the  wood,  did  signify  Christ  bearing 
the  Cross,"  says  Bishop  Pearson,  adding,  "  this  is  not  only  the  observa- 
tion of  the  Christians,  but  the  Jews  themselves  ha\'e  referred  to  this  type 
unto  that  custom  ;  for  upon  Gen.  xxii.,  6 — '  And  Abraham  took  the  wood 
of  the  burnt  offering  and  laid  it  upon  Isaac  his  son  ' — the  lesser  Bereshith 
hath  this  note,  '  as  a  man  carries  his  cross  upon  his  shoulders.'  "  " 
Isaac  in  this  prefigured  the  Saviour's  sacerdotal  capacity,  for  it  was  part 
of  the  priest's  office  to  carry  the  wood  to  the  altar.' 

It  may  be  objected  that  the  symbolism  is  not  perfect  from  the  fact 
that  Isaac  was  not  slain,  but  in  truth  the  figure  is  the  more  closely  ful- 
filled.     Isaac  fell  not  by  his  father's  hand,  because  God  in 

Death,  the  Work  ^ 

of  the  Dev.i,        tlic  Scripturcs  clearly  points  out  that  death  is  not  His  work, 

not  of  God. 

but  that  of  the  adversary,  the  devil.  "  For  God  made  not 
death,  neither  hath  He  pleasure  in  the  destruction  of  the  living." 
(Wisdom  of  Solomon  i.,  13.)  "  God  created  man  to  be  immortal,  and 
made  him  to  be  an  image  of  his  own  eternity.  Nevertheless,  through 
envy  of  the  devil  came  death  into  the  world."  (//'.,  ii.,  23,  24.)*  S. 
Gregory  also  assigns  as  a  reason,  "  In  this  sacrifice  for  us,  He  died  as  to 
His  humanity,  but  His  immortalit\-  rL-inained  from  His  di\-inity."  ' 

holding  in  their  hands  a  pine  cone,  as  the  Egyptian  deities  do  the  crux  ausatn.  The  cones  point 
towards  the  tree,  significant  <if  a  connection  with  it,  as  the  source  from  which  divine  life  is  derived. 

'Justin  Martyr,  Dialog,  with  Trypho,  ^  cxxxviii.  The  words  quoted  proljably  refer  to  Isa.  liv., 
8,  9.  There  is  a  mystery  in  the  very  name  of  the  vessel  appointed  by  God  for  the  salvation  of  his 
chosen  race.     On  the  symliolical  meaning  of  the  name  .-/;■/'.  see  the  note  at  the  end  of  this  chapter. 

'•'  I'earson  on  the  Creed,  art.  iv.,  note,  ]>.  303,  London  ed.,  1S39. 

"  Origcn  in  Gen.,  Horn.,  8. 

■*  Of  course  the  ."Vpocryiiha  is  not  cited  as  positive  proof,  yet  the  Churcli  selects,  at  times, 
lessons  from  it,  and  the  interpretation  given  above  is  not  strained. 

'  S.  Gregory  in  ICzck.,  lib.  i.,  Horn.  6. 


Types  of  the  Cross  49 

The  gist  of  patristic  interpretation  may  be  summed  up  in  the  words 
of  S.  Ephraim  :  "  Isaac  ascended  tlie  mountain  hearing  the  wood  that  he 
miglit  be  immolated  like  an  innocent  laml),  and  the  Saviour 

S.  Ephraim. 

went  up  Mount  Calvary  that  He  might  be  offered  as  a  lamb 
for  us.  When  thou  contemplatest  the  sword  (Abraham's  knife),  con- 
sider the  lance.  When  thou  lookest  upon  the  wood,  let  thy  mind  dwell 
upon  the  Cross.  When  thou  seest  the  fire,  embrace  in  thy  thoughts  the 
love  and  desire;  and  when  thou  beholdest  the  ram  caught  by  the  horns 
in  the  plant  Sabec,  behold  the  Lamb  of  God,  see  Him  with  pierced  hands 
hanging  from  the  Cross.  The  plant  called  Sabec  is,  by  interpretation, 
remission,  or  liberation.  The  old  man  dismissed,  and  liberated,  his  son 
from  slaughter,  designating  the  Cross  which  remitted  sins  to  the  world 
and  ministered  life  to  it.  The  ram  suspended  in  the  shrub  Sabec  alone 
mystically  liberated  Isaac,  but  the  Lamb  of  God  suspended  upon  the 
cross  liberated  the  world  from  death  and  hell."  ' 

The  change  of  type  from  Isaac  to  the  ram  presents  no  difficulty.  "  Both 
Isaac  who  was  not  slain,  and  the  ram  which  was  slain,  were  types  of  Christ 
crucified.      The  first  represented  him  in  his  divine  nature, 

^  Substitution  of 

which  died  not,  and  in  his  sacerdotal  office,  or  capacity,  as         <he  Ram  for 

Isaac  in  Type. 

he  exercised  it  upon  the  cross;  the  second  exhibited  him 

purely  in   his  human   nature,  and   only  so  far  as  he  was  a  sacrifice."" 

S.  Augustine  supposes  that  the  thicket  was  of  briars,  prefiguring  the 
crown  of  thorns,  and  S.  Basil  finds  in  it  the  type  of  the  nails." 

In  mediaeval  art  Isaac  is  frequently  represented  as  bearing  the  wood 
arranged  as  a  cross,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  sculptures  in  the  west  porch 
of  Notre-Dame  in  Rheims;  in  a  window  in  the  north  aisle 

Isaac  in  Art. 

of  Notre-Dame  in  Chartres;  and  also  in  a  window  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Bourges,  from  which  our  illustration  is  taken.      Date,  thir- 
teenth century.' 

'  S.  Ephraim,  Scrm.  de  Abraham. 

*  Origen,  in  loc,  Horn.  8.  S.  Ambrose,  De  Abraham,  lib.  i,  c.  8.  §  77.  S.  Aug.,  Ps.  51, 
§  5.  S.  Chrysost.,  in  loc,  Horn.  47,  etc.  Paulinus  considers  the  lamb  to  have  been  a  prelude 
to  the  Paschal  lamb  which  was  in  itself  a  type  of  Christ  crucified.  Ep.  10,  ad  Sever.  S.  Am- 
brose thinks  the  ram  was  chosen  as  best  representing  the  Prince,  or  Leader  of  the  Flock.  De 
Abraham,  lib.  i,  c.  8,  §  77.     Parker,  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  Gen.  xxii.,  13. 

^  S.  Aug.,  De  Civ.  Dei.,  lib.  xvi,  c.  31  (chap.  32  in  Eng.  Trans.,  1610).  S.  Basil,  Selene. 
Orat.,  7,  p.  43.  .S.  Prosper  traces  the  analogy  of  the  types,  and  literal  Sacrifice,  and  concludes 
that  this  was  the  Day  of  Christ  which  "  Abraham  saw,  and  was  glad."  S.  John  viii.,  56. 
De  Prom,  et  Pra:diet.  Dei.,  par.  I,  c.  17.  S.  Ambrose,  lib.  i.,  c.  8,  §  77,  78.  S.  Chrysos.,  in 
V.  12,  13,  Horn.,  47.     Parker,  Biblio.  Bib..  Gen.  xxii.,  13. 

■*  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  370  and  note. 


50 


History  of  the  Cross 


Jacob's  Ladder. 


The  Rod  of 
Moses. 


The  ladder  in  Jacob's  dream,  i.s,  strictly  speakinij,  rather  a  type  of 
Him  through  whose  intercession  the  angelic  powers  are  "  ministers  to 
the  heirs  of  salvation  "  (Heb.  i.  14),  than  of  the  instrument 
of  His  sacrifice,  yet  the  early  Christian  writers,  as  well  as 
the  artists,  often  use  the  Cross  as  synonymous  with  the  Crucified,  and 
frequently  refer  to  this  figure. 

S.  Jerome  considers  the  descend- 
ing angels  as  typical  of  the  Jews, 
the  ascending,  of  the  Gentiles.' 
Bosio  symbolizes  the  height,  width, 
length,  and  depth  of  the  Cross,  as 
love,  good  works,  discipline,  and 
faith ;  the  four  steps  in  the  ladder 
of  the  Christian's  Cross." 

Concerning  the  rod  of  Moses, ^ 
the  Fathers  are  voluminous  in  their 
comments  on  it  as  a 
type  of  the  Cross.  Ori- 
ives  the  pith.  On 
the  swallowing  up  of  the  magicians' 
serpent-changed  rods  (Ex.  vii.,  12),  he  says,  "  The  serpent  is  used  in  Scrip- 
tures as  a  symbol  of  wisdom  and  knowledge  (S.  Matt,  x.,  16;  Gen.  iii.,  i), 
and  Moses'  rod  being  changed,  devoured  those  of  the  magicians.  Thus 
the  Cross  of  Christ,  the  preaching  of  which  seemed  foolishness,  and 
which  is  typically  lodged  in  the  writings  of  Moses,  according  to  our 
Lord's  saying,  '  For  he  wrote  of  me  '  (S.  John  v.,  46),  this  Cross,  I  say, 
being  cast  on  the  ground,  that  is,  after  it  once  reached  the  faith  and  be- 
lief of  the  world,  was  turned  into  wisdom,  and  into  such  marvellous  and 
mighty  wisdom  as  devoured  all  the  wisdom  of   Eg_\^pt,  that  is,  of  this 

'  S.  Jerome,  Ps.  gi. 

'  Bosio,  La  Trionfanti'  c  Gloriosa  Croce,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  5. 

^  In  the  Traditionary  Hist,  of  the  Cross  it  is  shown  th.it  Moses'  rod  was  made  of  a  part  of 
the  Tree  of  Life  in  Paradise.  It  was  handed  down  by  the  patriarchs  to  Joseph.  After  his 
death  it  was  seized  by  Pharaoh.  Jethro  being  friendly  to  the  Israelites,  secretly  conveyed  it 
away  and  planted  it  in  his  garden.  When  Moses  took  refuge  with  Jethro,  and  was  beloved  by 
Zip]iorah,  she  jirevailed  upon  her  father  to  consent  to  the  marriage  on  condition  that  Moses 
could  pluck  from  the  ground  the  rod  fzap/iirj,  which  none  of  her  other  suitors  could  move. 
Moses  perceived  that  upon  it  was  written  the  sacred  Tetrni^rammaton  which  he  only  could  pro- 
nounce. Hence  he  was  able  to  perform  the  miracle.  Modie's  What  is  Your  Xamc?,  p.  167. 
See  also  Sale's  Koran,  vol.  ii.,  p.  183,  note. 


Isaac  Carrying  the  Wood. 
From  Jameson's  History  of  our  Lord. 


Types  of  the  Cross  51 

world.  The  rod  of  Moses  is  (in  figure)  tlic  Cross  of  Christ,  by  whicli  the 
world  is  conquered  and  its  princes  triumpiied  over."  ' 

S.  Augustine  says,  "  The  Cross  whicii  is  believed  to  be  foolishness  to 
the  infidels,  is  turned  against  the  ser[)ent,  that  is,  wisdom,  and  in  sacred 
knowledge  it  devoured  all  the  wisdom  of  the  world."  "  Scverianus  su[)- 
poses  that  when  Moses  struck  the  rock,  he  did  so,  as  did  the  Jews  with 
the  blood  of  the  Paschal  lamb,  "  in  the  shape  of  the  cross,  that  even 
nature  and  inanimate  things  might  venerate  the  Cross,  for  the  king  being 
absent,  we  venerate  the  image  of  the  king.  The  sign  is  sufficient."' 
S.  Augustine  further  writes,  Moses  did  nothing  without  "  the  wood  of 
the  sacrament.  God  despised  not  the  aid  of  the  rod,  but  ennobled  it, 
that  we  might  know  the  mystery  of  the  wood  to  come,  a  shadow  of  the 
sacrament  figured  in  the  rod."  "  If  the  Red  Sea  was  to  be  divided, 
Moses  was  commanded  to  lift  up  his  rod,  and  the  sea,  recognizing  the 
figure  of  the  wood  to  come,  opened  a  safe  path  to  the  people.'  If  he 
came  to  the  bitter  waters  of  Marah,  unless  it  received  the  wood  within 
itself,  it  was  not  sweetened.  Which  thing  was  a  sign,  through  the  use 
of  the  Cross,  the  bitterness  of  nations  was  to  be  turned  to  sweetness.  If 
the  people  have  not  water  to  drink,  the  rock  is  struck  by  the  wood,  and 
a  virtue  imparted  which  it  had  not  by  nature.  If  the  cruel  host  of 
Amalek  is  to  be  slain,  Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun,  is  commanded  to  hold 
the  rod  in  his  hands,  and  Moses  stretches  his  arms  in  the  shape  of  the 
Cross,  and  thus  by  means  of  the  figure  of  the  Cross  the  in\'incible  enemies 
are  overcome."  " 

"  God  was  pleased,"  says  S.  Antony,  "  to  make  choice  of  Moses' 
shepherd  staff,  or  crook,  which  was  always  in  his  hand,  to  give  him  the 

'  Origen  in  Ex.,  c.  7,  Horn.  4.,  compare  S.  Aug.,  Dc  Tctnporc,  ser.  86,  87.  The  rod  was 
a  symbol  of  power.  "  The  rod  of  Moses  in  his  hand  and  antecedently  to  the  change  of  it,  im- 
plied the  state  of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt  as  long  as  Joseph  flourished  and  ruled  there,  swaying, 
as  it  were,  the  very  sceptre  of  that  kingdom.  This  rod  cast  on  the  ground,  signified  the  servile 
and  abject  condition  of  the  Hebrews  after  Joseph's  death,  when  they  were  tied  down  to  con- 
tinual hard  labor  in  clay  and  brick  ;  and  being  turned  into  a  serpent  it  was  very  obviously  a 
representation  of  this  people  as  abhorred,  and  worried  by  the  Egyptians.  .  .  .  The  rod  re- 
stored to  itself  .again,  expressed  that  happy  change  when  they  were  delivered  from  their  slavery, 
and  obtained  not  only  liberty,  but  power  and  rule."  Lyr.  Tost.  Pen-r.  Parker,  Biblio.  Bib. 
Ex.  iv. ,  3.     Serpent,  the  sytnbol  of  wisdom  ;  sec  also  Bunsen's  Keys  of  S.  Peter. 

^  S.  Aug.,  £>e  Temp.,  ser.  86,  8_7. 

'  Sever.,  Orat.  4  In  Cruce,  etc.     Oral.  3  Dc  Imagine. 

■*  There  is  a  tradition  among  the  Jews,  that  the  sea  was  divided  into  twelve  openings  for 
the  separate  reception  and  safety  of  each  tribe.     Parker,  Biblio.  Bib.,  Ex.  iv. ,  21. 

'  .S.  Aug.,  De  Temp.,  ser.  loi,  go,  Horn.  27,  50. 


52  History  of  the  Cross 

sign,  or  test,  of  a  miracle,  to  keep  him  mindful  of  his  sometime  obscure 
condition.  The  opening  of  the  Red  Sea  was  not  done  by  the  column 
of  fire,  or  the  Shechinah,  but  b\-  Moses'  rod."  The  rod  is 
the  special  ensign  of  power.  Moses  had  his,  and  Aaron, 
Pharaoh,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  theirs,  saith  S.  Hilary.'  "  This  rod  of 
Moses  by  which  Egp)'t  was  subdued  is  in  a  figure  the  Cross  of  Christ, 
by  which  the  world  is  conquered,"  saith  Origen.''  "  Death  came  by  the 
serpent,  if  so,  wood  in  the  serpent  showed  Christ  crucified,"  writes  S. 
Augustine."  Again  the  rod  turning  into  a  serpent,  and  being  returned 
into  a  rod,  showed  the  Resurrection,  argues  S.  Cyril.'  And  also  the  rod 
and  the  serpent  were  emblems  of  power  and  wisdom.  As  S.  Ambrose 
says,  the  serpent  was  a  symbol  of  the  divine  wisdom  in  the  decree  and 
economy  of  Christ  crucified.^ 

The  Jews  admitted  that  the  brazen  serpent  had  a  symbolic  meaning 

the  mystery  of  which  they  could  not  understand.      So  confessed  one  of 

the  Jews  present  at  the  discussion  of  Justin   Martyr  with 

Brazen  Serpent.     ^  ,        e       -r,        j.  ■        -r  ■  •         i    u      ^l  ,.1 

1  rypho.  1  he  true  significance  is  recognized  by  the  author 
of  the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  who  terms  the  brazen  serpent  "  a  sign  of  sal- 
vation. .  .  .  For  he  that  turned  himself  toward  it  was  not  saved  by 
the  thing  that  he  saw,  but  by  thee,  that  art  the  Saviour  of  all."  (Wis- 
dom .x.xi..  6,  /. )  Our  Blessed  Saviour  himself  quoted  the  figure,  appl_\-- 
ing  it  personally.  (S.  John  iii..  14.)  "  The  lifting  up  of  the  serpent  is 
the  deatli  of  Christ,"  saith  S.  Augustine,  "  the  cause,  by  a  certain  mode 
of  construction,  being  put  for  the  effect.  .  .  .'  Our  Lord,  however, 
did  not  transfer  sin,  /.  <•.,  the  poison  of  the  serpent,  to  his  flesh,  but 
death,  in  order  that,  in  the  likeness  of  sinful  flesh,  there  might  be  pun- 
ishment without  sin,  by  virtue  of  which  sinful  flesh  might  be  deli\-ered 
both  from  punishment  and  from  sin."'  "  Christ  is  therefore  the  ser- 
pent," says  Nicetas,  "like  as  in  the  similitude  of  sin  He  was  made 
man."  And  again,  "  The  brazen  serpent  was  not  verily  a  serpent,  but 
the  figure  of  one,  it  had  no  venom.  In  the  same  manner,  Christ,  who 
had  not  the  venom  of  sin,  was  not  one  of  us,  who  bear  the  form  of  a  ser- 

'  S.  Hilary  in  Ps.  134,  Col.  405. 

'■'  Origen  in  Exodus,  c.  7,  J/om.  4,  p.  42. 

'a.  Aug.  in  Ps.  73.  §  5. 

*  S.  Cyril.  Catech.,  18.     Parker,  Biblio.  Bib.,  V.y^.  iv.,  3,  4. 

'  S.  .Vmbrofe,  Ps.  108,  ser.  6,  §  18.     Parker,  Biblio.  Bib.,  Num.  xxi.,  8. 

'  Justin  MartjT,  Dialog,  with  Trypho,  g  94. 

'  S.  Aug.,  quotcil  in  Qitciia  Aiiifa,  ,S.  John  iii.,  14. 


Types  of  the  Cross  53 

jicnt."  '  That  is,  have  the  poison  of  wickedness.  "  See  then  the  apt- 
ness of  the  figure,"  exclaims  The(ii)h\iacl,  "  tlie  figure  of  the  serpent 
has  the  appearance  of  the  beast,  but  not  its  poison;  in  the  same  way 
Christ  came  in  the  likeness  of  sinful  flesh,  being  free  from  sin."  ' 

That  the  early  Church  fully  understood  the  type,  S.  Augustine  shows 
when  he  writes,  "  To  prefigure  His  Cross,  Moses,  by  the  merciful  com- 
mand of  God  raised  aloft  upon  a  pole  the  image  of  a  serpent  in  the  desert, 
that  the  likeness  of  sinful  flesh,  which  must  be  crucified  in  Christ,  might 
be  prefigured."  ' 

Another  witnesses:  "  If  any  one  feigncth  not  to  see  that  the  image 
of  tlie  brazen  serpent,  after  the  manner  of  one  hanging,  signified  a  type 
of  the  Cross  of  the  Lord  which  was  to  deliver  us  from  serpents,  that  is, 
from  the  angels  of  the  Devil,  while  it  hanged  up  the  Devil,  tliat  is,  the 
serpent  which  had  been  slain  by  its  means  (or  whatever  other  interpreta- 
tion of  that  figure  hath  been  revealed  to  more  worthy  men),  so  long  as  the 
apostle  declareth  that  all  thii/gs  happoiLii  at  that  time  to  t  lie  people  in  a 
fipinre  (I  Cor.  x.,  ii).  I  am  content  that  the  same  God  who  in  the  Law- 
forbade  any  likeness  to  be  made,  should  by  a  special  mandate  have  inter- 
posed His  command  that  the  likeness  of  a  serpent  should  be  made.  If 
thou  obeyest  the  same  God,  thou  hast  His  law.  TIiou  sliall  not  make  the 
likeness  of  any  thi)ig,  if  thou  regardest  also  the  command  touching  the 
likeness  made  afterwards,  do  thou  also  follow  Moses'  example,  and  not 
make  any  image  contrary'  to  the  law,  unless  God  command  thee  like- 
wise." ■" 

Yet  another  says,  "  It  may  seem  unaccountable  that  they  should  be 
commanded  to  look  up  to  a  serpent  in  order  to  their  safety.  Why  not 
rather  to  Heaven,  or  to  the  Tabernacle,  or  to  the  holy  things  reposited 
therein,  to  the  ark,  or  the  mercy  seat,  or  the  cherubim,  or  the  altar,  or 
the  candlestick,  or  the  veil  ?  Why  not  any  of  these  rather  than  an 
image,  whether  graven  or  cast,  which  Moses  had  but  so  little  time  before 
forbidden  absolutely  to  be  made.  What  then  can  wo  make  of  this  but 
that  it  was  a  type  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion  as  himself  hath  told  us  ? 
But  still  it  may  be  asked  why  the  figure  of  a  serpent  should  be  chosen 

'  Nicetas  in  notes  ad  2  Oral,  in  Pascha.  Greg.  Razianzen. 
'  Tlieophylact,  in  loc.  Catena  Aurea,  S.  John  iii.,  14. 

'  S.  Aug.,  Ps.  cxix.,  V.  123.,  vol.  v.,  p.  430,  Oxf.  Trans.     S.  .\ug.  on  S.   John,  Horn,  xii., 
also  S.  Aug.,  City  of  God,  b.  x,  c.  8. 
■*  TertuUian  on  Idolatry,  vii.,  6. 


54 


History  of  the  Cross 


for  a  type  of  Christ  ?  I  answer  that  this  serpent  was  a  symbol,  or 
emblem,  of  wisdom,  of  the  divine  wisdom  in  the  decree  and  economy  of 
Christ  crucified.     And  as  this  brazen  serpent  had  nothing  of  poison  in 


Sacrifice  of  Isaac. 


The  Brazen  Serpent. 


The  Crucifixion. 
From  Twiniiig's  Svmhols  of  Early  and  Mcdiai'al  Christian  Art. 

it,  SO  the  blessed  antitype  was  sent  in  the  likeness  of  sinful  flesh  (Rom. 
viii.,  3),  yet  without  sin  (Isa.  liii.,  9)."  ' 

The  illustration  is  from  a  book  of  the  fifteenth  century,  in  the  British 

'  Severian..  qiu)k-'l  in  Parker's  Hihlia.  Bib.,  Num.  xxi.,  S. 


Types  of  the  Cross  55 

Museum.  The  Venerable  JJede  gives  us  early  authority  for  the  use  of 
the  type  in  art  in  iMighuul.  In  A.M.  677,  the  monasteries  of  S.  Peter  at 
Wearmouth,  and  S.  Paul's  at  Jarrow  were  founded  by  S.  l^ennet  who 
"  adorned  it  with  many  pictures  disposed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  repre- 
sent the  harmony  between  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  the  con- 
formity of  the  figures,  the  one  with  the  reality  of  the  other;  thus  Isaac 
carrying  the  wood  ivhich  was  to  make  the  sacrifice  of  himself,  was  ex- 
plained by  Christ  carrying  the  Cross  on  which  he  was  to  finish  his  sacri- 
fice, and  the  brazen  serpent  was  illustrated  by  our  Lord's  crucifi.xion."  ' 
Another  type  is  the  wood  cast  into  the  water  at  Marah.  S.  Ambrose 
interprets  it:  "  By  the  bitter  water  is  designated  the  Law  of  Moses,  but 
by  the  wood  the  Passion  of  Christ,  which  was  completed  bv 

^  '  '  Wood  Cast  in 

the  wood  of  the  Cross.     The  people  who  came  out  of  Egypt  the  pooi  of 

Marah, 

found  bitter  water  because  they  received  the  law  which 
they  were  not  able  to  fulfil,  but  to  the  Gentiles  coming  to  the  faith  of 
Christ  the  bitterness  of  the  law  is  changed  through  the  Passion  and 
Resurrection  of  Christ  into  sweetness."  "  Others  of  the  Fathers  consid- 
ered the  calamities  of  life  figured  by  the  bitter  waters  which  are  sweet- 
ened by  the  grace  of  the  Cross,  the  sign  of  Avhich  we  receive  in  holy 
Baptism,  by  which  also  we  are  revivified,  even  as  those  dying  of  thirst  in 
the  wilderness  are  refreshed  by  living  water.^ 

Concerning  the  cluster  of  grapes  borne  by  the  spies  of  Israel  as  an 
earnest  from  the  Promised  Land,  S.  Augustine  writes,  "  For  e\en  the 
Divine  Word  may  be  understood  by  the  grape;  for  the  The  cluster 
Lord  even  has  been  called  a  cluster  of  grapes,  which  they  of  Grapes, 

that  were  sent  before  by  the  people  of  Israel  brought  from  the  land  of 
promise  hanging  on  a  staff  crucified  as  it  were."  *  "  Jesus  Christ  is  the 
cluster,"  says  S.  Gregory,  "  exhibiting  himself  on  the  wood  that  bore 
Him  up,  whose  blood  is  joyfully  drank  by  the  saints  in  order  to  their 
salvation  in  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven."  '  The  two  bearers  are  sometimes 
taken  for  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  S.  Ephraim  considers  them  as 
typical  of  the  "  Prophets  and  Apostles."'     Perhaps  the  interpretation 

'  Twining,  Symbols  of  Early  and  Mcdiaval  Christian  Art,  p.  SS. 

'^  S.  Ambrose,  Super.  Apocal. ,  c.  6. 

'  S.  Aug.,  in  loc,   Tertul.  ad  yttdtos,  c.  13. 

"  S.  Aug.,  Ps.  8. 

'  S.  Greg.,  .\yssen,  in  Cant.  Cor.,  //o/n.  3. 

*  .S.  Ephraim.  Rhythum,  xviii.,  iinte  K.,  Oxf.  Trans. 


56  History  of  the  Cross 

of  S.  Ambrose  is  better:  "  The  one  wlio  preceded  was  the  Jewish 
Church,  heralding  by  type  and  prophecy  the  coining  Messiah,  yet  saw 
Him  not,  and  despised  Him;  the  bearer  who  followed  was  the  Gentile 
which  had  Him  constantly  before  his  eyes.'"  ' 

The  vine  and  grapes  naturally  commended  themselves  to  art.      In  a 

window  of  Lulliiigstone  Church,  Kent,  England,   Christ  is  represented 

nailed  to  a  vine  in  the  form  of  a  Y  or  Pall  cross  rising  from 

Use  in  Art.  •   1    ^^  r  •  c  •    i  r  i    •     ^ 

the  middle  of  a  cistern,  from  one  side  of  which  water  is 
flo\\ing.  People  of  all  ranks  approach  and  some  are  filling  vessels.  A 
monk  is  digging  a  channel  to  let  the  water  flow  freely.  Above  is  the 
text,  "  If  ani  man  thirst,  come  to  me  and  drink  "  (S.  John  vii.,  37J. 
The  date  of  the  glass  is  about  1520.^ 

A  type  more  familiar  in  art  than  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  is,  the 
action  of  the  Widow  of  Sarepta  when,  gathering  two  sticks  to  dress  food 
The  Two  Sticks  fo""  hei'sclf  and  son,  she  is  met  by  Elijah.  S.  Augustine 
Gathered  by  the   ^.j^pi-jj,,^  ^j^g  woiiiau  as  tvpifviug  the  Chuixh,  and  the  sticks. 

Widow  of  ^  -'  I       .         & 

Sarepta.  j-jqj-  only  111  material  but  number,  the  Cross. ^ 

The  mediiEval  artists  seized  the  tradition  that  the  Widow  held  the 
wood  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  perpetuated  it,  as  in  the  windows  of 
Notre-Dame  in  Chartres,  and  on  the  sculptures  at  Rheims.*  The  cross  is 
generally  represented  as  a  Saltire.  The  illustration  is  from  a  window  in 
the  cathedral  of  Bourges  and  is  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  cross  is 
of  a  green  color,  as  is  frequently  the  case  when  the  symbolic,  and  not 
the  actual  tree  is  represented. 

S.  Augustine  also  draws  a  simile  from  the  staff  of   Elisha  when   laid 

upon   the  dead  child   of  the  Shunamite   woman.      "  The   staff   without 

Elisha  avails  naught,  because   the  Cross  without   Christ  is 

staff  of  Elisha.  ,  ,  t- 

powerless.  Therefore  the  blessed  Elisha  ascends  into  the 
chamber,  as  Christ  ascends  upon  the  Cross,  Elisha  bows  himself  that  the 
child  may  be  resuscitated,  so  Christ  humbled  himself  that  he  might  raise 
up  the  world  l\"ing  in  sin.  .See  how  this  man  of  perfect  age  contracts 
himself  that  he  may  agree  with  this  little  dead  child.  What  Elisha  pre- 
figured in  the  boy,  Christ  filled  up  in  the  whole  human  race."  " 

'  S.  Ambrose,  ser.  72  De  A'lilnh:     S.  (Cyprian.     See  also  S.  Isidore,  Num.  xi.,  and   others. 
^  Arc/ur(>lo!;ical  jfoiiriial.  1856.     The  blessed  Virgin  is  sometimes  compared  to  the  I'romised 
Land  which  produced  the  grapes. 

'  S.  Augustine,  in  lib.  1.    I7omiliariiiii,  Ifoni.  18,  ,t  Horn.  Contra  /•'mistiim,  lib,  xii,  c.  34. 
*  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  37  and  note.  '  S.  Aug.,  />  Temport-,  ser.  206. 


Types  of  the  Cross 


57 


other  Types. 


These  are  only  a  part  of  the  types  hi  which  the  warmth  of  early  Christ- 
ian love  delighted  to  trace  the  mystery  of  the  Cross.  The  club  of  Cain, 
Aaron's  rod  that  budded,  Rahab's  scarlet  cord,  the  nail  of 
the  tent  used  by  Jael,  Gideon's  oak,  David'.s  stai?  and  his 
judgment  seat,  the  axe  rescued  by  Elisha,  etc.,  were  pressed  into  the 
service.'  And  although 
these  typical  and  alle- 
gorical representations 
may  appear  strained 
and  far-fetched  to  us, 
they  were  ' '  used  in  com- 
pliance with  the  custom 
of  those  times,  and  had 
their  use  amongst  those 
who  had  been  familiar- 
ized to  that  sort  of 
argument."  ' 

The    types    of    the 
Cross  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment  are   few  yet   sig- 
nificant.     Prominent  is 
,  ,      ,        ,  .  ,      ,  Window  in  Cathedral  at  Bourges.     From  Twining's  iVw/Wj. 

that  of  the  bier  of  the  *"  ''     - 

son  of  the  Widow  of  Nain.      S.  Ambrose  says,  "  There  was  hope  of  his 

rising:  again,  because  he  was  borne  on  wood,  which  though 

^       c>  '  '  &  Types  of  the 

before  it  did  not  benefit  us,  yet  after  Christ  had  touched  cross  in  the  New 

Testament. 

it  began  to  profit  unto  life,   that  it  might   be  a  sign  that 

The  Bier  of  the 

salvation  was  to  be  extended  to  the  people  by  the  wood  of  son  of  the 

, ,         ^^  ,,  3        A  1    .  •.  1  *'    TT  -1-    •  i.     "Widow  of  Nain. 

the  Cross.  As  a  later  writer  remarks:       Here  it  is  not 

the  dead  that  He  touches,  but  the  bier;  like  the  staff  of  Elisha,  laid  on 
the  dead  child.  He  touches  us  but  through  the  wood  of  his  Cross;  His 
communication  of  Himself  to  us  is  through  the  dead,  and  dead-bearing 
but  life-giving  wood."  " 

A  happy  similitude  is  that  of  the  ship  tossed  upon  the  \vavcs  of  the 
Lake  of  Genneseret.     "  It  is  necessary  that  we  should  be  in  the  ship," 

•  For  a  fuller  account  of  these  types  see  Bosio,  La  Tiionfante  Cioce,  lib.  iii. 
'  Prelim.  Diss,  to   Brown's  Trans,  of  Justin  Martyr,  p.  ii.,  ed.  1S46. 

^  S.  Ambrose,  in  Lucan,  cap.  7. 

*  Isaac  Williams,  Our  Lord's  Ministry,  Second  Year,  p.  103. 


58  History  of  the  Cross 

saith  S.  Augustine,  "  but  this  wood  in  which  our  infirmities  are  carried, 
is  the  Cross  of  Christ,  in  which  we  are  signed  and  saved  from  the 
Ship  on  Lake  of  drowning  of  the  world."  '  "  The  wood  of  the  Cross  is  the 
Gcnncseret.         ^^^-^  ^j  ^^^  safety,"  '  saith  S.  Ambrosc. 

Frequent  reference  is  made  by  the  Fathers  to  the  Hght  which  was  to 
be  placed  not  under  a  bushel,  but  upon  a  candlestick.     S.   Hilary  de- 
clares,   "  The   lamp,  /.  c. ,  Christ   Himself,   is  set   upon   its 

The  Candlestick 

on  which  the  stand  wlieu  suspended  on  the  Cross  in  His  Passion,  to  giv'e 
light  forever  to  those  that  dwell  in  the  Church;  to  all  that 
are  in  the  house."  ^  S.  Augustine,  commenting  on  the  Passion,  says, 
"  The  Lord  commended  that  very  cross  by  bearing  it  upon  His  shoul- 
ders; and  for  that  candle  which  was  to  be  lighted  and  not  to  be  put 
under  a  bushel,  the  Lord  bore  the  candlestick."  * 

There  are  other  t},-pes  made  use  of  by  the  Fathers,  but  they  are  far- 
fetched, and  want  of  space  compels  their  omission.^ 

The  second  class  of  types  refer  to  the  form  of  the  Cross.     A  striking 

one   is  adduced  by  Tertullian,   interpreting  the  action   of  Jacob  when 

blessintj  the  sons  of  Joseph.      "  His  hands  being  laid   upon 

Second  Class  of  ^  ■'  '  &  i 

Types  Referring   their  hcads  and  interchanged,  and  turned  indeed  crosswise, 

to  Form.  . 

the  one  over  the  other,  so  that,  representing  Christ  in  a 
figure  they  might  even  then  foreshow  the  blessing  to  be  accomplished  in 
Christ."  '  S.  Augustine  beautifully  alludes  to  this  type  when  apostro- 
phizing divine  wisdom.  "  O  Thou  Light  .  .  .  which  Jacob  saw, 
when  blind  through  great  age.  with  illumined  heart,  in  the  persons  of  his 
sons,  shed  light  on  the  different  races  of  the  future  people,  in  them  fore- 
signified ;  and  laid  his  hands  mystically  crossed,  upon  his  grandcliildren 
by  Joseph,  not  as  their  father  by  his  outward  eye  corrected  them,  but  as 
himself  inwardly  discerned."  ' 

The  Jews,  as  has  already  been  stated,  marked  tlic  posts  and  lintels 
Blood  of  the  '^^  their  doors  with  the  blood  of  the  Paschal  lamb  in  the  form 
Paschal  Lamb.  „f  ^j^^  j.^^,  ^ross."  "  And  the  lamb  concerning  which  this 
precept    is  given,"    sa_\-s   Justin    Ahu't}-r,   "  should   be  roasted  whole,   a 

'  S.  Augustine,  Di-  Dizvrsis.  ser.  22.         -  S.  Ambrose,  Df  Spiritii  Sanclii,  lib.  i.,  cap.  8. 

'  S.  Hilary,  quoleil  in  Cah-na  Aurca,  S.  Matt,  v.,  15. 

■■  S.  -Augustine  on  .S.  John,  Horn,  cxvii.,  §  3. 

'  .See  Hosio,  La  Trioiifaiitc  Croce,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  2S,  and  Gretser,  Dt-  Cruce.  lili.  i.,  cap.  47. 

'  Tertullian  on  Bapt.,  viii ;  Tcrtul.  .also  applies  the  action,  crossed  hands,  to  Contirmation. 

'  S.  Angus.,  Confess.,  x.,  S  52,  p.  211,  Oxf.  Trans. 

'See  chap,  i.,  alsoDidron,  Christ.  Iconog.,  vol.  i.,  p.  370. 


Types  of  the  Cross  59 

type  of  that  punishmciit  i>f  the  Cross  which  Christ  was  to  undergo.  For 
a  lamb  when  it  is  roasting  is  like  the  figure  of  a  cross;  for  one  spit  is  run 
straight  through  from  the  lower  parts  to  the  head,  and  another  is  run 
through  the  back,  on  which  the  shoulders  of  the  lamb  do  hang. "  '  Bishop 
Pearson,  quoting  the  above,  considers  it  no  "  far-fetched  figure  of  the 

C»  t    3 
ross. 

S.  Cyprian,  exhorting  martyrs  to  patience,  instances  Moses  passing 

the  whole  day  in  prayer  and  elevation  of  his  hands.     "  Which  example 

of  perseverance,"   he  declares  is  written,  "  because  Moses 

'  The  Posture  of 

to  overcome  Amalek,  who  in  figure  is  the  devil,  elevated      Moses' Hands 

when  Israel 

his  hands  in  the  sign  and  sacrament  of  the  Cross.      Neither  Overcame 

1  ]  t  1   •  1  •         1  ,  ,   .,.         .  Amalek. 

was  he  able  to  overcome  his  adversaries  but  by  stability  in 
the  sign,  therefore  he  persevered  in  the  elevation  of  his  hands. "°     S. 
Augustine  also  often  employs  this  type,  cx.gr.,  Moses,  "  the  friend  of 
God,  who  overcame  the  enemy,  extended  his  hands  to  Heaven,  even  then 
exhibiting  the  figure  of  the  Cross  of  Christ."  ' 

Among  the  ancient  Jews  was  preserved,  unconsciously,  another  type. 
The  unspeakable  Name  was  written  with  three  jots  within  a  circle  and 
beneath  the  sacred  Tau.     Many  of  the  coins  of  Samaria  are 

...  ,...,,  ,    .  ,  ,  Tetragrammaton. 

SO  inscribed,  and  it  is  said  that  tJiis  was  graven  on  the  plate 
of  gold  worn  on  the  forehead  of  the  High  Priest.  Bede  and  others,  re- 
ferring to  the  figure  and  its  position,  consider  it  as  a  type  of  the  Cross, 
and  adopt  the  words  of  S.  Paul,  "  God  forbid  that  I  should  glory  save 
in  the  cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  "  (Gal.  vi.,  14).'  It  may  have  been 
some  lingering  recollection  of  this  sign  which  assisted  in  prompting  the 
literal  figuring  of  the  cross  on  the  brow  by  some  early  Christians." 

The  form  of  the  Cross  was  likewise  typified  in  the  number  three  hun- 
dred which  was  the  numerical  value  of  Tau.  S.  Barnabas  thus  speaks  of 
it:   "  Understand,   therefore,    children,    these   things   more 

,  All  ir  !••        The  Number  300. 

fully,  that  Abraham,  who  was  the  first  that  brought  in  cir- 
cumcision looking  forward  in  the  spirit  of  Jesus  circumcised,  having  re- 

'  Justin  Martyr,  Dialog,  with  Trypho.,  sec.  I,  xl.;  see  also  S.  Ephraim,  Rhythmn,  xviii., 
§  3,  p.  i6S  and  note,  Oxf.  Trans. 

"  Pearson  on  the  Creed,  art.  iv.  '  S.  Cyprian,  De  Exort.  Rfarlyrum. 

^  S.  Aug.,  De quinque  Hivresilies  ;  see  also  Justin  Martyr,  ^§  go,  iir,  and  note  in  translation. 

'  Bede,  De  Taberiiaciilo.  lib.  ii.,  c.  21. 

*  Bede  speaking  of  Pharaoh's  signet  ring  which  he  gave  to  Joseph,  refers  to  the  Cross  which 
the  Christian  wears  as  a  seal  on  his  forehead  and  in  his  heart.  Baptism,  is  called  by  the 
Fathers  "  The  Lord's  .Signet,"  "  The  Church's  Seal,"  etc. 


6o  History  of  the  Cross 

ceived  the  mystery  of  three  letters.  For  Scripture  says,  that  Abraham 
circumcised  three  hundred  and  eighteen  men  of  his  house.  But  what 
was  therefore  tlie  mystery  that  was  made  known  unto  liim  ?  I\Iark, 
first,  the  cigliteen  and  next  the  three  hundred.  For  tlie  numerical  let- 
ters of  ten  and  eight  are  I.  II.,  and  these  denote  Jesus,  and  because  the 
Cross  was  that  by  which  we  were  to  find  grace,  therefore  he  adds  three 
hundred,  the  note  of  which  is  T,  the  figure  of  His  Cross.  He  who  has  put 
the  engrafted  gift  of  His  doctrine  within  us,  knows  that  I  never  taught  to 
any  one  a  more  certain  truth  ;  but  I  trust  that  ye  are  worthy  of  it."  ' 

Three  hundred  and  eighteen  was  the  number  of  Abraham's  servants 

when,  having  conquered  the  four  kings,   he  met  Melchizedec,  and  did 

,.,_      homaa;e  to  him  as  the  typical  Great  High  Priest  to  whom 

Number  of  Abra-  »  -'  J^  ° 

ham-s  Servants       LgyJ   should    pay   tithcS. 

Three  hundred,  the  number  Tau,  were  the  chosen  men  of  Gideon, 

who  destroyed  Midian,°  of  whom   Paulinus  remarks,  not  the  number  or 

.     valor  of  the  letrion,   but  the  sacrament   of  the  Cross,   ex- 

And  of  Gideons  » 

men-  pressed   in  the  numeral  for  three  hundred,  Tau,  overcame 

their  enemies."  "  By  the  three  liundred,  comprised  in  the  letter  Tau 
(which  bears  a  resemblance  to  the  cross),  it  is  expressed  that  the  sword 
of  the  enemy  is  overcome  by  the  wood  of  the  Cross."  ' 

Bosio  reminds  us  that  the  very  form  of  anointing  the 

The  Anointing 

of  the  High  High  Priest  was  typical.      While  the  unction  of  kings  was 

somewhat  like  a  crown,  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  capli,  that 
of  the  High  Priest  was  in  the  form  of  a  Saltire  cross." 

The  early  Christians  loved  to  trace  the  type  of  the  .symbol  of  salva- 
tion in  everything  in  nature.      "  See  ye  to  it,"  exclaims  Justin  Martyr, 
"  if  there  be  aught  in  this  world  which  without  this  form 

Type  of  the 

Cross  in  Every-    hath   its  ordcrings,  or  can  minister  to  intercourse  between 

thing  in  Nature.  ,,  .  ,        .'  ,  . 

man  and  man.  .S.    hphrami  abounds  m  examples.     A 

single  gem  only  we  give  in  conclusion:  "  And  if  the  little  bird  drew  in 

'  S.  Barnabas,  Catholic  Epistle,  Wake's  Trans.,  §  9. 

'  It  is  noteworthy  that  Gideon  himself  was  typified  by  the  barley  cake  of  which  he  dreamed. 
(Jud.  viii.,  13),  and  the  barley  cake  was  the  sacrificial  cake  which  we  have  seen  (chap,  i.)  w-as 
marked  with  a  cross.  '  P.iulinus,  Efist.,  i. 

■"  S.  Gregory,  Morals  on  Job,  b.  xxx.,  c.  74.  Clemens  Alexand.  applies  this  type  to  the 
dimensions  of  the  ark.  Stromaliiiii,  lib.  6.,  c.  4;  also  S.  Chrysostom  on  S.  Mark,  I/oni.  iv.; 
see  Bosio,  La  Trionfanle  Crocc,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  2. 

'  Abarbanel,  quoted  by  Bosio,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  10.  The  unction  in  coronation  in  the  present 
day  is  in  the  above  form. 

*  Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  2. 


Types  of  the  Cross  6i 

its  wings,  and  refused  to  use  the  silly  mystery  of  the  Cross,  the  air  would 
then  refuse  her,  and  not  ijear  her  up;  hut  ller  uin<_;s  piaise  the  Rood. 
And  if  a  ship  spreadeth  her  sails  for  the  sea,  in  the  mystery  of  the  Rood 
and  from  the  yoke  of  wood,  she  maketh  a  bosom  for  the  wind;  when  she 
hath  spread  forth  the  Rood,  then  is  the  course  spread  clearly  out  for  her 
voyage.  i\nd  if  the  shij)  was  that  of  the  Jew,  the  Cross  rebuked  him  by 
his  deed,  since  though  not  intending  it,  in  the  shiji  himself  with  his  own 
liands,  he  hath  spread  and  displayed  the  mystery  of  the  Rood.  The  sea 
by  the  Rood  was  subjected  to  the  unbelievers;  but  unless  the  crucifiers 
had  made  wood  into  the  form  of  a  cross,  and  upon  it  had  hung  the  Body 
as  a  sail,  the  voyage  would  have  halted.  "  ' 

I  believe,"  writes  one  of  tlie  worthiest  scholars  of  this  century,  "  that 
a  spiritualized  eye,  seeing  all  the  human  race  shut  u[)  in  the  person  of 
our  Lord,  having  before  it  always  the  figure  in  which  it  pleased  Almighty 
God  to  place  him  before  us  on  the  Cross,  might  expect  to  find  a  similar 
figure — the  figure  of  the  Cross — placed  here  and  there  all  over  the  work 
of  creation,  as  a  religious  spirit  in  better  days  than  the  present  erected 
that  Cross  on  high,  wherever  a  human  foot  might  be  arrested  by  it;  and 
as  the  ancient  Fathers  detected  it  in  the  most  hidden  allusions  of  Scrip- 
ture— Moses  stretching  out  his  hands  to  the  Amalekites,  his  rod,  the 
branch  which  he  threw  into  the  bitter  waters,  the  wood  of  the  ark,  the 
tree  of  life — in  every  animal  and  material  nature  he  would  expect  to  dis- 
cern the  figure  of  a  cross;  and  he  would  not  be  surprised  to  find  all 
mathematical  figures  were  reducible  to  this  element,  or,  as  modern 
anatomists  have  suggested,  that  the  whole  animal  world  is  framed  upon 
this  type — a  central  column  with  lateral  processes.  It  is  one  of  the 
grand  speculations  of  zoological  science."' 

APPENDIX 

NOTE   ON   THE    SYMBOLICAL    MEANING   OF   THE   WORD   ARK 

"  Altho'  nothing  indeed  can  be  more  ridiculous  and  absurd  than  the 
childish  play  which  some  people  make  with  names  and  words,  it  is  nevertheless 
certain  that  some  names  and  words  there  are  which  are  naturally  expressive  of 
those  things  they  are  imposed  upon,  and  that  there  are  certain  powers  of  the 

'  S.  Ephraim,  Rhylhnm,  xviii.      See  also  TertiiUian,  Apology,  chap,  xx.,  xxx.;  Gretser,  De 
Cruc,\  lib.  i.,  cap.  52  ;   Lipsius,  De  Cruce,  lib.  i.,  cap.  x.;   Bosio,  La  Trionfante  Croce,  lib.  iii. 
'^  Sewell,  Christian  Morals,  p.  323. 


62  History  of  the  Cross 

letters,  and  combinations  of  those  powers,  which  bear  some  sort  of  signature 
of  the  things  expressed,  so  that  both  letters  and  words  are  sometimes  purely 
symbolical,  and  in  some  sense  sacramental ;  whereof  instances,  both  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  are  obvious  enough.  Of  this  nature  is  the  name,  THE- 
BAH,  which  God  was  pleased  to  give  to  that  structure  which  he  commanded 
Noah  to  make,  and  that  with  all  exactness,  according  to  the  pattern  of  it  which 
was  shewn  him.  Now  this  name  is  not  originated  from  any  other  Hebrew  word 
so  far  as  we  can  find,  but  is  in  itself  an  original,  and  therefore  also  triliteral,  as 
the  original  words  in  that  tongue  generally  are.  Notwithstanding  which,  since  it 
is  a  sacred  name,  and  God  himself  imposed  it,  though  the  origination  of  it  may 
not  be  so  plain  to  every  vulgar  eye,  yet  we  may  safely  conclude  that  there  could 
not  but  be  some  very  good  reason  for  the  choice  thereof.  Something  of  which 
we  may  be  able  perhaps  to  glance  at.  But  the  deep  ground  of  the  imposition 
of  this,  or  indeed  of  any  other  name  given  by  God.  we  must  not  expect  ever 
fully  to  penetrate  into.  It  consists,  then,  of  these  three  letters,  Thau,  Beth, 
and  Hi-  :  all  of  which  are  here  symbolical. 

"  n,  Than,  is  the  symbol  of  man  and  of  the  human  nature  which  is  the 
perfection  and  end  of  all  the  creatures,  says  Chcedamus.  And  Christ,  who  is 
from  the  Greek  alphabet  called  Alpha  and  Omega,  is,  according  to  the 
Hebrew,  called  Aleph  and  Thau,  the  first  and  the  last,  or  God  and  man ; 
Thau  being  the  perfection  of  the  creation ;  and  the  abbreviation  of  Thiimmim. 
Whence  the  Syriac  has  translated  it,  /  am  Urim  and  Thiimmim.  This  Thau 
is  also  made  a  note  of  repentance  \Thishnbah\,  and  of  the  preservation  which 
is  consequent  of  it.  And  therefore,  in  the  vision  of  Ezekiel,  God  is  repre- 
sented as  commanding  his  angel  to  set  a  Thau  upon  the  foreheads  of  the  men 
that  sigh,  and  lament  the  publick  sins  and  abominations.  And  this  Thau,  the 
mark  of  the  angel  of  penitence,  and  of  the  soul's  Theshubah,  or  return  to  God, 
several  of  the  fathers  make  to  be  the  sign  of  the  Cross;  how  truly  I  determine 
not. 

"  2,  Beth,  signifies  a  house  after  the  manner  of  which  was  built  the  Ark  ; 
and  it  denotes  the  superior  wisdom,  or  the  house  of  wisdom  wherein  (say  the 
Hebrew  doctors)  all  things  were  ab  origine  disposed  in  their  archetypes,  before 
they  were  yet  brought  forth  into  their  proper  form,  or  species;  and  by  which 
Wisdom  all  things  that  are  created,  were  created,  and  produced,  according  to 
the  Psalmist.  ///  loisdom  hast  thou  made  all  things,  that  is,  in  the  Son,  which 
is  the  beginning  of  all  things  as  well  as  the  ending,  Gen.  i.  and  John  i.,  or  the 
first  and  the  last  in  the  alphabet  of  nature;  as  filling  indeed  the  whole  book  of 
nature.  This  is  the  second  symbol  or  literal  characteristick  of  the  ark,  impressed 
by  divine  science  in  the  very  name  of  it;  And  the  third  is 

"  n,  //'•,  which  is  the  letter  that  was  afterwards  given  by  God  to  .Vbraham, 
as  here  to  Noah;  concerning  which  the  learned  Jews  observe  that  it  is  doubled 
in  the  great  name  of  Gon,  because  in  Xhc  Jirst  Hk,  God,  formed  and  produced 
the  world  in  his  mind,  and  in  the  second  he  unfolded  things  into  their  several 
kinds  and  jjroper  specifick  forms,  but  with  this  provision:  that  the  l.ieings 
explicated   or  manifested    in    the    second    production   or  creation,    should   in 


Types  of  the  Cross  6 


similitude  and  consonance  imitate  and  emulate  the  first,  or  the  heavenly 
originals  themselves. 

"  And  this  is  the  radical  inter|)retation  of  the  name,  Thkhah,  as  it  was 
given  by  the  wisdom  of  God  to  the  ark  or  vessel  of  Noah,  namely,  '  That  it  was 
to  represent  to  him,  and  to  his  posterity,  the  perfection  of  the  human  nature 
such  as  it  is  in  Christ,  and  the  preservation  thereof  through  the  waters,  even 
the  vi^aters  of  Baptism  and  Regeneration.'  " 

The  comment  of  our  learned  commentator  is  rich  in  lore.  It  is  with  regret 
a  line  is  omitted,  especially  as  the  work  is  very  rare.  Room  must  be  made  for 
one  more  observation:  "  That  the  one  and  the  same  word  being  read  from  the 
right  to  the  left  is  Thebah,  and  from  the  left  to  the  right  is  Ha-beth,  /.  r., 
The  House,  which  is  as  much  as  Beth-Ha-Kadcsh,  the  Sanctuary,  or  the 
Church,  Conformable  to  which  was  that  constant  primitive  application,  as  we 
find  in  the  holy  fathers,  of  the  Ark  to  the  Church." — Bibliotheca  Biblica, 
annotation  xiv.  (to  Genesis  vii.). 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  EARLY  FORM  AND  USE  OF  THE  CROSS 

Section  i.  —  The  Cross  of  Piiitishnient.     Section  2.  —  \'oIiintary  Crucifixion. 
Section  j;. — Crucifixion  of  Children  by  the  jfeivs 

THE  cross  was  at  first  a  simple  stake  upon  which  the  sufferer  was 
impaled,  or  to  which  he  was  fastened ;  in  time  it  became  a  gibbet 
of  various  shapes.  The  original  signification  is  preserved  in  the  Greek 
GTavpos,  stauros,  and  ffHoXoi/',  sko/ops,  both  primarily  signifying  a  sharp 
stake  set  in  the  ground.  The  development  of  the  instrument  of  death  is 
shown  in  the  Latin  names,  crux,  patibuliini,  and  fnrea.  The  cross  was 
not  recognized  in  the  Mosaic  law,  hence  the  Jews  had  no 

Original  Cross.  ,        ,  i  i        i   i 

word  to  express  it,  but  used  a  double  term  expressing  con- 
junction, the  loarp  and  ivoof.^ 

Section  i.  The  Cross  of  Punishment. — The  cross  was  used  in  an- 
cient times  as  a  punishment  for  flagrant  crimes  in  Egypt,  Ass_\-ria,  Persia, 
Inventor  of  Palestine,  Carthage,  Greece,  and  Rome;  the  explorers  found 

the  Cross.  jj-   j,^   Mexico,  and  modern  travellers  in  China,  Japan,  and 

Madagascar.  Tradition  ascribes  the  invention  of  the  punishment  of  the 
cross  to  a  woman,  the  Queen  Semiramis,  by  whom,  or  by  her  husband 
Ninus,  Farno,  King  (if  Media,  with  his  wife  and  seven  sons,  were  cruci- 
fied.''    As  it  is  uncertain    when    the   celebrated    Assyrian    Queen    lived, 

'  I'e.Trson  on  the  Creed,  art.  iv.  ;  yet  I.ysons,  tracing  the  origin  of  the  word,  says,  "  C/irns/i 
tflp  signifies  boards  or  pieces  of  timber  fastened  together,  as  we  should  say,  crosswise  ;  the  word 
is  so  used  in  Exodus  xxvii  ,  6.  This  seems  a  very  natural  and  probable  etymon  for  the  term, 
but  it  may  also  allude  more  to  the  agony  suffered  on  such  an  erection,  and  then  its  origin  per- 
haps may  be  traced  to  J,np,  C/irutz,  '  agitation.'  This  word  also  means  to  be  '  kneaded  '  and 
broken  in  pieces  like  clay  in  the  hands  of  a  potter.  Chrotshi  in  Chaldee,  we  are  told  by 
I'arkhurst,  means  accusations,  charges,  revilings,  reproach," — all  of  them  terms  applied  to  our 
Lord  in  his  sufferings.  "  Ciux  ponitiir pro  oiiiiti  angore,  strictius  pro  morte  in  ligiio."  Pliny 
shows  that  the  punishment  of  the  cross  among  the  Romans  was  as  old  as  Tarquinius  Priscus  ; 
how  much  older,  it  is  perhaps  difficult  to  say.  ''  Diodorus  Siculus,  Antiq.,  lib.  ii.,  c.  i. 

64 


Early  Forms  and  Uses 


65 


it  may  be  doubted  whether  .she  is  eiititletl  to  the  unen\-iable  credit  of 
devising  tlie  most  agoiiiziiiuj  death  ])()ssible.  Josephus  says'  tliat  i'lia- 
raoh's  cliief  baker  was  crucified  not  hanj^ed,  as  our  English  translation 
reads,  and  Pharaoh  may  have  preceded  Seiniramis. 

Among  notable  instances  of  crucifixion,  are  those  of  the  Queen  of 
Scythia  by  Cyrus  in  the  sixth  century  B.C.     Alexander  the  Great  is  said 


Crucifixion  by  Impaling. 
From  Lipsius'  Dc  Ci'uce. 


Crucifixion  on  Stauros. 
From  Lipsius'  Dc  Cf'Jict\ 


to  have  crucified  two  thousand  Tyrians.  By  the  cross  perished  Poly- 
crates,  King  of  Samos.  This  monarch  had  been  uniformly  Notable 
fortunate,  never  in  any  of  his  plans  or  wishes  havilig  been  instances. 
,even  disappointed.  Becoming  alarmed  at  his  uninterrupted  happiness, 
he  resolved  to  sacrifice  his  most  highly  prized  treasure,  to  avert  unknown 

'  Josephus,  Aiifiq.,  b.  ii.,  c.  5.     Semiramis  by  some  historians  is  supposed   to  have  lived 
B.C.  2000  ;  by  others,  li.c.  1250.      I'haraoh  cir.  B.C.  1720. 

5 


66  History  of  the  Cross 

future  ills.  Accordingly  he  thre\v  into  the  sea  his  signet  ring  which  he 
valued  above  all  else ;  it  was  swallowed  by  a  fish  which  was  caught  soon 
after  and  the  ring  restored  to  him.  His  evil  fate  came  at  last.  He 
was  conquered  by  Oroetes,  a  commander  of  Darius,  and  crucified. 
Leonidas,  after  death,  was  hung  upon  the  cross  by  Xerxes,  B.C.  480. 
Ariarathes,  King  of  Cappadocia,  in  his  eighty-first  year,  was  flayed  alive, 
and  then  crucified,  together  with  his  ofificers,  by  order  of  Perdiccas,  B.C. 
322.  So,  also,  was  Regulus  at  Carthage,  B.C.  255.  Eight  hundred  Jews 
W'Cre  thus  put  to  death,  and  the  throats  of  their  wives  and  children  cut 
by  command,  and  in  the  presence  of  Alexander  Jannzeus,  while  he  and 
his  wives  partook  of  dinner  heightened  by  this  zest. 

As  early  as  the  time  of  Tarquin  B.C.  600,  the  Romans  singled  out 

this  punishment  as  one  of  peculiar  disgrace,  by  exposing  upon  the  cross 

the  corpses  of  those  who  had  committed  suicide  to  escape 

Bodies  of  Sui- 
cides Exposed      imposed  labor.      The  Carthaginians.  Egyptians,  and  Persians 

on  the  Cross.  i  i         i    i        i-  r       i  i  111 

treated  ni  like  manner  the  dead  bodies  ot   those  they  held 
specially  dishonored.' 

The  Jews  deny  the  crucifixion  of  persons  alive,  because  their  law  re- 
quired tliat  executions  should  be  accomplished,  and  the  bodies  buried 
„     .^  .      ,.        that  same  day.'     Yet  Maimonides  describes  their  gibbet  as 

Crucifixion  by  .^  >^ 

the  Jews.  similar  to  a  cross,  and   Lipsius  supposes  that  thus  suffered 

the  "  Heads  of  the  people  "   for  the  idolatry  of  Baalpeor,'  the  King  of 

Ai,'  the  five  kings,  and  the  sons  of  Rizpah.^    But  no  nation  has  suffered 

more  severely  by  this  mode  of  execution  than  the  Jews,  when  the  measure 

they  had  meted  out  was  returned  unto  them.      "  His  blootl  be  upon  us, 

and    upon    our   children,"    was   their   imprecation,   and    it    was  fulfilled. 

Varus  at  one  time  crucified  two  thousand  of  them  for  sedition.     At  the 

siege  of  Jerusalem,  the  Romans  "  caught  every  day  five  hundred  Jews, 

nay  sometimes  they  caught  more     .      .     .     and   nailed  them  one  after 

one  way,  and  another  after  another,  to  the  crosses,  by  way  of  jest,  when 

their  multitude  was  so  great  that  room  was  wanting  for  the  crosses,  and 

crosses  wanting  for  the  bodies."'     "  So  that  they  which   had   nothing 

but  '  crucify  '  in  their  mouths,  were  therewith  paid  home  in  their  own 

bodies,   early   suffering  the   reward   of  tlu'ir  imprecations,   and   properly 

in  the  same  kind."  ' 

I  Lipsius,  De  Cruce,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  12.  '  Deut.  xxi.,  22,  23.  '  Num.  xxv.,  4. 

*  Josh,  viii.,  29.         '  Josh,  x.,  26  ;  2  Sam.  xxi.,  q.         '  Josephus,  Ai:fii/.,h.  xvii.,  c.  10. 

'  Browne,    l'11/i.'iv  ami  Common  Errors.  1).  v.,  c.  21. 


Early  Forms  and  Uses 


67 


Death  by  the  cross  was  the  most  ij^nominious  that  could  be  inflicted. 
The  Roman  citizen  was  exempt  from  it;  to  the  Jew,  "  cursed"  was, 
"  everyone   that    hantjeth    ui^on   a   tree"';    the    Greek  re-         ,  „„    .     „, 

J  o  1  Ignominy  01 

garded  with  mingled  contempt  and  pity  the  preacher  who  the  cross, 

proclaimed  "  The  unknown  God  "  to  be  one  who  had  submitted  to  such 
a  disgraceful  death.      One  unac- 


qi 


intcd  with  the  tone  of  feeling 


among  Jews  and  Gentiles  at  tlie 
time  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion 
can  form  no  conception  of  the 
"scandal  of  the  cross."  The 
great  obstacle  to  the  building  up 
of  the  Christian  Church  was,  that 
the  "  Headstone  of  the  corner  " 
was  "  a  stone  of  stumbling  and  a 
rock  of  ofTence."  '  The  force  of 
the  Apostle's  expression  can  be 
very  imperfectly  estimated  by 
tiiose  who  have  not  read  the 
early  Christian  documents. ° 

Among  the  Jews  there  was 
some  chance  of  mercy  and  escajie 
from   death   offered 

Chance  of  Ob- 

tO  the  accused.     Ac-    taining  W.tness 

to  Innocence. 

cording  to  the  Mish- 

na,  before  any  one  was  punished 

for  a  capital  crime,  proclamation 

was  made  before  the  prisoner  by 

the  public  crier,  that  if  any  one 

knew  aught  of  his  innocence,  he  should  appear  before  the  judge  and  declare 

it.     And  the  Gemara  of  Babylon  says,  that,  "  before  the  death  of  Jesus  this 

proclamation  was  made  for  forty  days,  but  no  defence  could  be  found."  ' 

'  Gal.  iii.,  13.  '-'  i  Pet.  ii.,  7,  S. 

'  Blunt,  Hist,  of  the  Christian  Church,  First  Three  Centuries,  p.  135.  "From  this  cir- 
cumstance the  Heathen  are  fully  convinced  of  our  madness,  for  giving  the  second  place  after 
the  immutable  and  eternal  God,  and  Father  of  all,  to  a  person  who  was  crucified."  Justin 
Martyr,  Apology  2  ;  see  also  Minutius  Felix,  pp.  57,  147,  ed.  Davis.  Cantab,  1712. 

■■  Lowth  on  Isaiah  liii.,  8.  On  the  passage  from  the  Gemara  above  mentioned.  Lardner 
observes,  "  It  is  truly  .surprising  to  see  such   falsities,  contrary  to  well-known  facts."      Testi- 


Crucifixion  by  One  Hand  and  Foot. 
From  Bartholinus'  De  Cruce  Christi. 


68  History  of  the  Cross 

Now  it  is  plain,  from  the  history  of  the  four  Evangelists,  that  in  the 
trial  and  condemnation  of  Jesus  no  such  law  was  observed  (though, 
^    .  ,.  according  to  the  account  of  the  Mishna,  it  must  have  been 

Denied  to  our  o  ' 

^°''^-  in  practice  at  that  timet:  no  proclamation  was  made  for  any 

person  to  bear  witness  to  the  innocence  and  character  of  Jesus,  nor  did 
any  one  voluntarilj'  step  forth  to  give  his  attestation  to  it.  And  our 
Saviour  seems  to  refer  to  such  a  custom,  and  to  claim  the  benefit  of  it, 
by  his  answer  to  the  High  Priest,  when  he  asked  him  of  his  disciples  and 
of  his  doctrine  :  "  I  spake  openly  to  the  world  ;  I  ever  taught  in  the  syna- 
gogue and  in  the  temple,  whither  the  Jews  always  resort;  and  in  secret 
have  I  said  nothing.  Why  askest  thou  me  ?  ask  them  which  heard  me, 
what  I  have  said  unto  them;  behold,  they  know  what  I  said"  (John 
xviii.  20,  21).  This,  therefore,  was  one  remarkable  instance  of  hardship 
and  injustice,  among  others,  predicted  by  the  prophet,  which  our  Saviour 
underwent  in  his  trial  and  sufferings.' 

Previous  to  the  execution,  the  sufferer  was  stripped  of  his  clothing; 
nor  is  it  probable  that  our  Lord  was  spared  this  indignity.  Jeremy 
D„i™:„=,.;,c  t„  Tavlor  says,  "  For  as  soon  as  Adam  was  clothed  he  quitted 
Execution.  Paradise;  Jesus  was  made  naked  that  he  might  bring  us  in 

again.""  In  this  state  of  nudity  the  scourging  was  inflicted.  This  was 
either  with  rods,  or  with  whi[)s  of  cords  or  leather,  to  which  small  bones 
were  sometimes  fastened  to  increase  the  severity.  By  the  Jewisli  law  the 
stripes  were  limited  to  forty,  and  to  lean  to  the  side  of  mercy  in  case  of 
a  miscount,  only  thirty-nine  were  inflicted,  thirteen  blows  being  given 
with  a  scourge  having  three  thongs.  There  was  no  limit  in  the  Roman 
law,  only  a  freeman  ci:ndd  not  be  punished  with  a  whip.  This  exemp- 
tion was  not  extended  to  our  Sa\'iour;  he  received  the  chastisement  of  a 
slave. °     Such  was  the  severity  of  the  flagellation,  that  death  frequently 

inoiiics,  vol.  i.,  p.  19S.  Lowth  proceeds:  "The  report  is  certainly  false,  but  this  false  report 
is  founded  on  the  supposition  that  there  was  such  a  custom,  and  .so  far  confirms  the  account 
above  given  from  the  Mishna."  The  Mishua  was  composed  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
according  to  I'rideaux.      Lardner  ascribes  it  to  the  ye.ir  of  Christ,  iSo. 

'  l.owth,  /hid.:  "  ,S.  Paul  likewise  in  similar  circumstances,  standing  before  the  judgment 
seat  of  Festus,  seems  to  con)|)lain  of  the  same  unjust  treatment  :  that  no  one  was  called,  or  would 
appear  to  vindicate  his  character.  '  My  manner  of  life  from  my  youth,  which  was  at  the  first 
among  mine  own  nation  at  Jerusalem,  know  all  the  Jews ;  which  knew  me  from  the  beginning, 
if  they  would  testify,  that  after  the  most  straitest  sect  of  our  religion  I  lived  a  Pharisee. '" — Acts 
xxvi.,  4,  5.  5  Jeremy  Taylor,  Life  of  Christ,  ])art  iii.,  sec.  15. 

■'  Some  Romish  writers  have  imagined  an  enormous  number  of  stripes  inflicted  upon  our 
Lord.     S.  Urigitta,  in  her  Kevelatioin,  savs  five  Ihousand,  others  more. 


Early  Forms  and  Uses  69 

anticipated  tlic  intended  torture  of  tlie  cross.  Sometimes  the  \ictini  was 
gagged,  or  liis  tongue  cut  out,  lest  in  his  agony  lie  might  reveal  unpleas- 
ant secrets,  or  revile  his  judge.  The  additional  insults:  the  ironical 
crowning  witli  thorns,  the  [uuple  robe,  and  mocking  homage  to  which 
our  Lord  was  subjected,  were  founded  on  no  customary  or  legal  usage, 
but  were  merely  the  exhibition  of  malicious  cruelt)',  or  tlie\-  may  be 
otherwise    accounted    for.      It    has    been    conjectured    that 

Possible  Reasons 

Pilate,  moved  either  by  the  warnings  of  his  wife,  or"  the      for  piiate's  in- 
tended Mercy, 
more  afraid  "   because  Jesus  "  declared  himself  the  son  of 

God,"  sought  to  pacify  the  Jews  by  scourging  Jesus;  and  exhibiting 
Him,  thus  disgraced,  to  ridicule,  and  so  to  pLirchase  for  our  L(.)rd  immu- 
nity from  further  torture.  Hut  if  such  feelings  moved  the  stern  Roman 
governor,  they  were  crusiietl  by  the  change  of  attack  by  the  Jews.  Aban- 
doning their  first  charge  of  blasphemy,  they  accused  our  blessed  Lord  of 
sedition  and  treason  (for  which  crucifixion  was  the  special  punishment), 
and  excited  Pilate's  fears.  "If  thou  let  this  man  go,  thou  art  not  Caesar's 
friend:  whosoever  maketh  himself  a  king  speaketh  against  Ca;sar  "  (S. 
John  xix.  12). 

It  n'as  part  of  the  condemnation  for  the  sufferer  to  bear  his  cross  to 
the  place  of  execution.  This  deprived  him  of  the  right  of  sanctuar}-,  and 
added,  if  possible,  to  the  disgrace.  The  lowest  term  of  re-  cross  Borne  by 
proach  that  a  Roman  could  apply  to  another  was ' '  crucifcr, ' '  ""=  victim. 

"  cross  bearer."  "  Sin  laughed  to  see  the  king  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  the 
great  lover  of  souls,  instead  of  the  sceptre  of  his  kingdom,  to  bear  a  tree 
of  cursing  and  shame;  but  Piety  wept  tears  of  joy,  \vlien  she  sIkuiUI  be- 
hold that  Cross,  which  lo.ided  the  shoulders  of  her  Lord,  afterward  sit 
ujion  sceptres,  and  be  engraved  and  signed  upon  the  forehead  of  kings."  ' 

It  has  been  supposed  that  Jesus  bore  only  the  transverse  beam,  while 
Simon  the  Cyrenian,  carried  the  rest  of  the  cross,  but  it  is  generally  pre- 
sumed  that  our  Lord   sustained   the  whole,"  until   he  sank 

Portion  of  the 

under  its  weight ;  as  Lsaac,  his  type,  carried  the  wood  of  the     Cross  Borne  by 

our  Lord. 

mystical  sacrifice.      No  Jew  or  Roman  could  touch  the  in- 
strument of  shame  without  defilement,  so  a  passer-b)-  is  pressed  into  the 
service,  betokening  the  gathering  in  of  the  Gentiles.     The  meaning  of 
the  names  are  significant.      Cyrenian  signifying"  obedient."  and  Simon, 

'  Jeremy  Taylor,  Life  of  Christ,  part  iii.,  sec.  15.  Discourse  .xx.;  see  also  S.  .\ug.  on 
S.  John  xix.,  17. 

''  Chrysos.  Hoin.  on  S.  Joliii,  S5  ;   TertuUian,  Contra  Jiiti.;  S.  Ephraim,  ser.  in  .\braham. 


yo  History  of  the  Cross 

"an  heir."  "It  was  not  a  Jew,"  says  S.  Ambrose,  "who  carried  the 
cross,  but  a  foreigner  and  wayfarer;  neither  did  he  precede,  but  follow, 
according  to  the  Scripture, — take  up  thy  cross  and  follow  me.  "  ' 

Sometimes  a  tablet  studded  with  sharp  nails  was  fastened  to  the 
border  of  the  garment  of  the  condemned,  and  S.  Cyprian  affirms,  "  that 
„    ,   _     .  ,       Christ  did  stick  to  the  wood  that  he  carried,  being  galled 

Heels  Goaded  '  o  £5 

with  Nails.  with  the  iron  at  his  heels,  and  nailed  even  before  his  cruci- 

xion. 

The  place  of  execution  was  usually  by  the  roadside,  or  on  an  eleva- 
tion without  the  city,"  that  passers-by  might  take  warning.      Wine  medi- 
^  .  cated   with   myrrh   was   given   to  the  victim,   to  blunt  the 

Stupeyiying  ^  o 

P°''°"-  sensibility  by  partial  stupefaction.     This  our  Lord  refused, 

in  order  that  His  mind  might  be  unclouded.  This  benumbing  potion 
must  not  be  confounded  with  the  draught  offered  to  Jesus  when  upon 
the  cross;  that  was  a  mixture  of  sour  wine  and  water  called  Posca,  a 
common  beverage  among  the  Roman  soldiers. 

The  cross  rarely  exceeded  ten  feet  in  height,  although  there  is  a  tra- 
dition that  our  Saviour's  was  fifteen  feet  high,  and  the  transverse  eight 
feet  long.'     The  sufferers  were  not  always  fastened  to  the 

Height  of  Cross.  .    ,  .,        ,  .  ,  ...  ,  -, 

cross  With  nails,  but  were  sometimes  bound  with  cords.  In 
this  manner,  according  to  tradition,  S.  Andrew  was  crucified,  hence  his 
agony  was  protracted  for  several  days';  and  the  thieves  are  generally 
represented  in  art  as  at  least  with  their  feet  tied.  Probably  in  the  in- 
stance of  our  Lord,  the  prophecy  of  the  Psalmist,  "  They  pierced  my 
hands  and  my  feet,"  was  literally  fulfilled,  yet  some  conjecture  that  his 
feet  were  only  bound  to  the  Cross.'     Additional  agony  was  sometimes 

'  S.  Ambrose,  lib.  x.  in   Lucan. 

^  S.  Cyprian,  De  passione  ;  Taylor,  Life  of  Christ,  part  iii.,  sec.  xv.  Discourse  xx.  ; 
Lipsius,  Dc  Crtice,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  11. 

^  "  Wherefore  Jesus  also,  thai  he  might  sanctify  tlie  people  with  his  own  blood,  suffered 
without  the  gate."     Heb.  xiii.,  12. 

■*  Gretser.  De  Cruce,  lib.  i.,  cap.  7.  Perhaps  palms,  not  feet,  are  meant.  A  ]>alm  is 
8.7  inches.  The  height  of  the  cross  is  generally  much  exaggerated  by  jiainters.  In  the  mys- 
tery attributed  to  S.  Gregory  Nazienzen  a  more  correct  idea  is  given,  for  the  body  of  our  Lord 
is  not  raised  above  the  reach  of  his  Virgin  Mother. 

"  Per  hos  tuos  sacros pedes,quos  oscular 
Matcrno  amore,  te  nunc,  niiscrenl  mei." 

'  This  tradition  is  very  ancient.  On  the  old  seal  of  the  city  of  Rochester,  England,  proba- 
bly taken  from  that  of  a  convent  established  cir.  A.D.  600,  the  saint  is  thus  represented.  Yet 
S.  Peter  Chrysologos  says  he  was  crucified  on  a  tree,  and  other  writers  specify  it  as  a  palm-tree. 

"Dr.  Paulus,  followed  by  Kosenmuller,  Kuehnoel,  and  Frische.  It  is  admitted  that  binding 
was  common  both  as  to  the  hands  and  feet  when  the  former  were  nailed  ;  hence  probably  also 


Early  Forms  and  Uses 


71 


inflicted  by  exposing  the  crucified  to  the  attacks  of  wild  beasts,  or,  by 
building  a  fire  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  the  sufferer  experienced  the  tor- 
ture of  burning  and  suffocation,  as  in  the  case  of  Pionius,  a  presbyter  of 
Carthage. 

The  bodies  of  the  victims  were  generally  left  upon  the  cross  until 
they  decayed  or  were  devoured  by  wild  beasts  and  birds.  On  great  oc- 
casions, such  as  birthdays,  etc.,  the 
Konian  governors  gave  permission 
that  they  might  be  taken  down,  but 
out  of  respect  to  the  law,  already 
alluded  to,  the  Jews  were  allowed  to 
hasten  the  death  of  the  crucified,  so 
that  by  burial  "  that  same  day,  the 
land  be  not  defiled."  Hence  the 
legs  of  the  fellow-sufferers  with  Jesus 
were  broken  ;  yet  so  carefully  did 
God  preserve  his  prophecies,  that  not 
only  not  even  a  bone  of  our  I.ord's 
body  was  broken,  either  by  the  lance 
that  pierced  His  side,  or  the  nails 
which  wounded  His  hands  and  feet, 
but  as  the  Romans  were  the  execu- 
tioners, not  even  a  hair  of  His  head 
perished,  although  by  the  Jewish  law 
that  of  malefactors  was  shorn.' 

The  cross  was  generally  erected 
previous  to  the  execution,  that  more 
effect    might    be    given 

'^  '^  When  the  Victim 

to    the    warning    punish-  was  Fastened 

to  the  Cross. 

mcnt.      Thus  in  the  war 

of  the  Romans  against  the  Jews,  Lucilius  Bassos  having  taken  capti\-e 
Eleazar  the  chief  of  the  young  Israelites,  "'  set  up  a  cross  as  if  he  were 
just  going  to  hang  Eleazar  upon  it  immediately  ...  in  order  to  pre- 
vail with  them  to  surrender  the  city  for  the  preservation  of  that  man."  ^ 

were  the  latter.  Oldshausen  on  Luke  xxiii.,  27-34.  According  to  a  writer  in  Gciith'riifii's  Mtig., 
April,  1738,  binding  was  peculiar  to  the  Romans.  On  the  Irish  standard  crosses,  the  feet  are 
represented  as  bound.  '  Browne.  Hydriotaphia  or  Urn-Burial,  chap.  i. 

'^  Tosephus,  Jewish   War,  b.  ii.,  chap.  vi. 


Crucifixion  of  S.  Andrew. 
From  Lipsius'  De  Cruce. 


History  of  the  Cross 


Sometimes  the  victim  was  nailed  to  the  cross  while  it  was  prostrate,  as 
in  the  instance  of  the  martyr  Pionius.'  The  risk  of  the  body's  being  torn 
from  the  nails,  by  its  swaying,  while  the  cross  was  being  lifted  up  and 
settled  in  its  place,  was  guarded  against  by  the  binding,  and  the  projec- 
tion in  the  upright  post,  which  passing  between  the  thighs  supported  the 


Crucifixion  by  Tying.     From  Lipsius'  De  Cruce. 

body.  Irensus  thus  describes  the  cross:  "  The  structure  of  the  cross 
has  five  ends,  or  summits,  two  in  length,  two  in  breadth,  and  one  in  the 
middle  on  which  the  crucified  person  rests."  "  Justin  Martyr  says,"  tliat 
which  is  fixed  in  the  middle,  to  whicli  they  who  are  crucified  are  fas- 
tened, stands  up  like  a  horn."'  Tcrtullian's  description  is  very  clear. 
"  A  part,  and  indeed  the  principal  part  of  the  cross,  is  any  post  which 
is  fi.xed  in  an  upright  position  ;  but  to  us  the  entire  cross  is  imputed 
including  its  transverse  beam,  .uul   the   projecting  bar  which   serves  as 


'  Lipsius,  De  Cruce,  lili.  ii.,  c.ip.  7. 
'  Ireiiicus,  Opera,  p.  166. 


'Justin  Martyr,  Dialog,  with  Trypho,  g  gi. 


Early  Forms  and  Uses 


7i 


a  scat."  '  Ilencc  such  phrases  as  frc(|LiciUly  occur  in  oltl  writers,  "  to 
rest  upon  the  sharp  cross,"  etc."  Tlie  modern  Japanese  and  inhabitants 
of  Madat^ascar  and  the  Soudan  are  said  to  construct  their  crosses  after 
this  manner.  In  art  this  portion  of  the  cross  is  ignored,  and  the  suppcd- 
ancitiii,  Dr  suppoi't  beneath  the  feet,  is  substituted. 

Neither  from  the  sim[)le  narrative  of  the  livantjelists,  nor  from  tr.idi- 


The  Crucified  Exposed  to  Wild  Beasts.  Crucifixion  and  Burning. 

From  Lipsius'  Dc  Cnice. 

tion,  can  we  learn  exactly  how  our  Sa\Mour  was  fastened  to  the  Cross, 
except  that  the  evidence  demanded  by,  and  offered  to,  the  sceptical  S. 
Thomas  (S.  John  xxi,  27)  shows  that  at  least  those  holy  hands — which 
had  healed  the  leper,  blessed  the  babes,  gi\'en  food  to  thousands — were 
riveted  to  the  cross.  Guevara,  Bishop  of  Mondoncdo,  chaplain  to  Charles 
V.  of  Spain,  gives  a  very  curiously  fanciful,  supposititious  account  of  the 

*  Tertullian,  Ad  A'titiotn-s^  lib.  ii.  "^  Cicero  against  Vt-rrcs,  v.,  66, 


74  History  of  the  Cross 

Crucifixion.      He  presumes  that  as  Adam  used  his  hand  in  plucking  the 

forbidden  fruit,  so  Christ  first  extended  his  hand  to  be  nailed,  the  left, 

Supposititious  the  hand  of  the  heart,  "  because  the  heart  of  Christ  should 
Accounts  of  f^^    1^,^     ^^.j^j^j^  ^,^^.  ,^^,^|.j  ^f  _j^j,^j^^  ^jj^j  offend,  and  the 

Christ  s  t      -  ' 

Crucifixion.  hand  of  Christ  should  pay  for  that  which  the  hand  of 
Adam  did  steal."  Then  the  cross  was  raised  and  rudely  settled  in  the 
ground  while  the  feet  swung  roughly  against  the  cruel  tree,  lastly  the  feet, 
the  left  being  placed  over  tlie  other,  were  fastened.'  In  Romish  legends 
we  read  that  to  S.  Bona\'enture  it  was  revealed  that  Jesus  ascended  a 
ladder  to  be  af^xed  to  the  cross.  Fra  Angelico,  Raphael,  and  others, 
have  adopted  this  method.  S.  Brigitta,  in  her  visions,  witnessed  both 
modes;  hence  some  few  painters  have  represented  our  Lord  as  supine  on 
the  cross  before  its  erection. 

According  to  tradition  our  Lord's  back  was  turned  towards  Jerusalem, 

which  was  in  the  east,  and  his  face  toward  the  west."     This  may  have 

been  a  refinement  of  crueltv  on  the  part  of  the  executioners. 

Position  of 

Christ  on  the  Jcsus'  back  was  placed  toward  the  capital  of  the  nation  of 
whom  the  Roman  governor  had  written  he  was  "  King," 
and  his  face  turned  to  the  setting  sun,  not  only  to  remind  him  of  his 
departing  glory,  as  his  enemies  fondly  deemed,  but  that  no  torture, 
however  petty,  yet  agonizing,  as  the  blaze  of  the  sun  would  be,  might 
be  spared.  Yet  Damascenus  spiritualizes  even  this.  "  Jesus'  eyes," 
he  says,  "  were  turned  toward  the  West,  toward  the  Roman  Church, 
Avhither  the  chief  of  the  apostles,  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  were  to  go."' 
Our  Saviour  was  crucified  with  his  face  to  the  West,"  says  Bishop 
Hall,  "  which,  however  spitefully  meant  of  the  Jews,  as  not  allowing 
liim  worthy  to  look  on  the  holy  city  and  temple,  yet  was  not  without  a 
mystery.  His  eyes  look  to  the  Gentiles,  saith  the  Psalmist;  as  Christ 
therefore  on  his  cross  looked  toward  us  sinners  of  the  Gentiles,  so  let  us 
look  towards  him."  ' 

^  Mount  of  Calvaiii-.  pt.  i.,  cliap.  31-33.  '  Bede,  in  Lucum,  cap.  93. 

'  Damascenus,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  13. 

^  Bisliop  Hall's  Sermon  xxxv.  The  position  of  Jesus,  averted  from  his  city,  may  have  been 
intentional  on  the  ])art  of  the  Roman  centurion.  When  Verres  seized  Gavius  in  Sicily,  about  to 
embark  for  Rome,  he  stripped  and  scourged  liim  in  the  market-place.  The  poor  wretch  uttered 
no  cry  but  the  oft  repeated  words  "  Civis  Romanus  sum,"  "as  if,"  says  Cicero,  "  those  niaj^ic 
words  had  power  to  save  him."  But  in  vain.  Verres  ordered  a  cross  to  be  erected  on  a  head- 
land that  commanded  a  view  of  Italy  across  the  strait,  saying  in  savage  mockery  that  as  Gavius 
called  himself  a  Roman  citizen,  he  might  have  ihc  opportunity  of  looking  toward  his  native  land, 
and  there  he  was  crucified. 


Early  Forms  and  Uses 


75 


The  position  of  the  crucified  was  not  invariably  the  same.  S.  Peter, 
at  Ills  request,  accordint^  to  tradition,  was  executed  witli  his  head  down- 
wards, considering  it  too  high  an  honor  for  one  wlio  had  position  of  the 
denied  his  master  to  suffer  in  the  same  manner  that  he  did.  Crucified. 

The  apostle  was  not  alone  in   his  mode  of  martyrdom.       Many   saints, 
especially  in    Egypt,   were  jnit   to  death   in   the  same  manner;'  others 


Crucih.xioii  Head  Downwards.      From  Lipsius'  De  Cruce. 

suffered,  like  S.  Andrew,  upon  the  cross  since  known  as  the  Saltire  cro.ss, 
or  the  cross  with  one  arm  and  the  foot  resting  upon  the  ground.'  In 
short,  the  cross  was  turned  any  way  that  infernal  art  could  L^ngthofLife 
suggest  to  add  to  the  torment.  In  spite  of  the  fearful  on  the  cross, 
agony  on  the  cross,  men  sometimes  lingered  a  long  time.  Doubtless 
some  instances  are  exaggerated,  yet  others  are  too  well  authenticated  to 

'  Forsyth,  Life  of  Cicero,  vol.  i.,  p.  58. 

-  Eusebius,   Ecclcs.    Hist.,  b.    viii-,    c.   S  ;    Lipsius,   De  Cruce.   lib.   iii..    cap.    S.       Hemans 
says  this  is  a  Parthian,  not  a  Roman  mode.      The  Builder,  March  i(.,  1S72,  p.  210. 


History  of  the  Cross 


be  doubted.  From  Bosio  we  learn  that  the  Apostle  S.  Andrew  lived 
two  days  on  the  cross,  preaching  to  the  people.  Victor,  Bishop  of 
Amaterna,  crucified  with  his  head  downwards,  also  lived  two  days,  which 
was  the  usual  time  that  crucified  persons  lived.  Timotheus  and  Maura, 
a  married  pair,  are  said  to  have  lived  nine  days  and  nights,  and  expired 
on  the  tenth  day.    This  story  is  probably  an  e.xaggeration.     The  Reverend 

Alban  Butler  relates,  that  Marceus 
and  Marcellainus,  "  twin  brothers,  of 
an  illustrious  family  of  Rome,  were 
condemned  to  be  bound  to  two  pillars 
with  their  feet  nailed  to  the  same. 
In  this  posture  they  remained  a  day 
and  a  night,  and  on  the  following 
day  were  stabbed  with  lances."  In 
the  year  297,  by  order  of  Emperor 
Maximian,  seven  Christians  at  Samo- 
sata  were  crucified.  Hipparchus,  an 
old  man,  died  in  a  short  time  ; 
James,  Romanus,  and  Lollianus  ex- 
pired the  next  day,  being  stabbed  by 
the  soldiers  ;  Philotheus,  Habibus, 
and  Paragrus  were  taken  down  still 
living;  Calliopius,  a  youth  of  Pam- 
ph_\-lia.  was  executed  after  sufler- 
ing  the  most  cruel  tortures,  being 
scourged,  broken  on  tlie  wheel, 
and  partially  burnt;  he  was  crucified 
with  his  head  downward  on  the 
fifth  day  of  Passion  week,  and  ex- 
pired on  the  following,  or  prepara- 
tion, day  at  the  same  hour. 
The  fortitude  displayed  under  crucifixion  by  Bomilcar  is  thus  described 
by  the  pagan  historian  Justin:  After  a  severe  defeat  of  the  Cartiiaginian 
army  by  Agathocles,  King  of  Sicih',  this  African  chief  had  shown  a  dis- 
position to  desert  to  the  enemy, — "  for  which  nlfcnce,"  says  Justin, 
"  he  was  nailed  by  the  Carthaginians  to  a  gibbet  in  the  midtlle  of 
the  forum,  that  the  same  place  which  had  been  the  scene  of  his  honor 


Crucifixion  with  Arms  .iml  Legs  Spread. 
From  I-ipsius'  Dc  Crucc. 


Early  Forms  and  Uses  T'j 

n^ifjht  now  witness  liis  pimisluncnt.  Ikit  l^nmilcar  bore  tlie  cruelty  of 
the  citizens  with  nKiL;iianiniity,  and  from  tlie  heiL;ht  of  the  cross,  as  from 
a  tribunal,  declaimed  against  the  crimes,  etc.  liaving  thus  spoken  with 
a  loud  voice  amid  an  immense  concourse  of  the  people,  he  expired." 

Besides  the  law  already  referred  to,  requiring  the  bodies  to  be  buried 
before  sundown,  there  was  also  a  superstition  among  the  Jews,  that  if 
the  corpse  was  left  upon  the  cross,  the  departed  soul  knew       .,   _      .     ^ 

i  i  ^  No  Rest  in  the 

no  peace,  but  wandered  in  unrest  until  the  interment  of  its        Grave  unless 

"■  Buried. 

former  tenement.  The  Jews  did  not  pray,  at  least  publicly  victims  not 
in  their  synagogues,  for  those  who  were  crucified,  nor  would  Prayed  for. 

they  allow  their  bodies  to  be  [jlaced  in  the  family  tombs,  until  the  flesh 
had  decayed  in  the  public  cemeteries.  Hence  'we  can  understand  why 
special  mention  is  made  that  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost,  "  begged  the  body  of  Jesus  "  to  place  it  in  his  own  sepulchre. 
The  act  was  so  contrary  to  that  customary  in  his  own  nation,  that  it 
was  noted  by  the  Evangelists  and  thus  not  only  was  the  prophec}'  ful- 
filled— "  He  made  His  grave  with  the  rich  "  (Isa.  liii.,  9) — but  the  iden- 
tity of  the  body,  and  the  reality  of  his  Resurrection,  were  established 
beyond  a  doubt. 

After  the  death  of  the  \'ictim,  the  cross  was  buried  with  him.  Adam 
Clarke  says  in  his  commentary  on  Isa.  xiv.,  19:  "  I5ut  thou  art  cast  out 
of  thy  grave  like  an  abominable  branch,  and  as  the  raiment 

Cross  Buried 

of  those  that  are  slain,  thrust  through  with  a  sword,  that  go  with  the 

.  Sufferer. 

down  to  the  stones  of  the  pit;  as  a  carcase  trodden  under 
feet."  That  is,  as  an  object  of  abomination  and  detestation;  such  as  the 
tree  is,  on  which  a  malefactor  has  been  hanged.  "  It  is  written."  saith 
S.  Paul  (Gal.  iii.,  13),  "  '  Cursed  is  every  one  that  hangeth  on  a  tree 
(from  Deut.  xxi.,  23).  The  Jews,  therefore,  held  also  as  accursed  and  pol- 
luted the  tree  itself  on  which  a  malefactor  had  been  executed,  or  on  which 
he  had  been  hanged  after  having  been  put  to  death  by  stoning.  And 
Dr.  Clarke  quotes  from  Maimonides  and  Kalinski :  "  The  Jews  never  hang 
any  malefactor  upon  a  tree  that  is  growing  in  the  earth,  but  upon  a  post 
fixed  in  the  ground,  that  it  misht  never  be  said,  '  that  is  the  tree  on 
which  such  an  one  was  hanged  ; '  for  custom  required  that  the  tree 
should  be  buried  with  the  malefactor.  In  like  manner,  the  stone  by 
which  a  criminal  was  stoned  to  death,  or  the  sword  by  which  he  was  be- 
headed, or  the  napkin  or  handkerchief  b_\-  which  he  was  strangled,  should 


78  History  of  the  Cross 

be  buried  with  him  in  the  same  grave.  For  as  the  hanged  man  was  con- 
sidered the  greatest  abomination,  so  the  very  post  or  wood  on  which 
he  was  hanged  was  deemed  a  most  abominable  thing,  and  therefore 
buried  under  the  earth."  '  The  value  of  these  testimonies  to  the  dis- 
posal of  the  instruments  of  death,  will  be  seen  when  we  come  to  examine 
the  evidence  for  the  discovery  of  the  true  Cross. 

The  sufferings  endured  by  a  person,  on  whom  this  punishment  is  in- 
flicted, are  narrated  by  Georg  Gottlob  Richter,  a  German  physician, 
in  a  Dissertation  on  the  Saviour's  Crucifixion:'' 

"  I.  The  position  of  the  body  is  unnatural,  the  arms  being  extended 
back  and  almost  immovable.  In  case  of  the  least  motion  an  extremely 
painful  sensation  is  experienced  in  the  hands  and  feet,  which  are  pierced 
with  nails,  and  in  the  back,  which  is  lacerated  with  stripes. 

"  II.  The  nails,  being  dri\'en  through  the  parts  of  the  hands  and  feet, 
which  abound  in  nerves  and  tendons,  create  the  most  exquisite  anguish. 

"  III.  The  exposure  of  so  many  wounds  to  the  open  air  brings  on  an 
inflammation,  which  every  moment  increases  the  poignancy  of  the 
suffering. 

"  IV.  In  those  parts  of  the  body  which  are  distended  or  pressed, 
more  blood  flows  through  the  arteries  than  can  be  carried  back  in  the 
veins.  The  consequence  is,  that  a  greater  quantity  of  blood  finds  its 
way  from  the  aorta  into  the  head  and  stomach  than  would  be  carried 
there  by  a  natural  and  undisturbed  circulation.  The  blood-vessels  of  the 
head  become  pressed  and  swollen,  which  of  course  causes  pain  and  a  red- 
ness of  the  face.  The  circumstance  of  the  blood  being  impelled  in  more 
than  ordinary  quantities  into  the  stomach  is  an  unfavorable  one  also,  be- 
cause it  is  that  part  of  the  sy.stem  which  not  only  admits  of  the  blood 
being  stationary  but  is  peculiarly  exposed  to  mortification.  The  aorta, 
not  being  at  liberty  to  empty  in  the  free  and  untlisturbed  wa\-,  as  for- 
merly, the  blood  which  it  receives  from  the  loft  ventricle  of  the  heart,  is 
unable  to  receive  its  usual  quantity.  The  blood  of  the  lungs,  therefore, 
is  unable  to  find  a  free  circulation.  This  general  obstruction  extends  its 
effects  likewise  to  the  right  ventricle,  and  the  consequence  is  an  internal 

'  Hone  gives  a  curious  account  of  the  execution  of  a  Jew  in  London  in  1S21.  The  execu- 
tioner, at  the  request  of  his  friends,  did  not  touch  his  body,  not  even  his  toes.  The  Jews  took 
down  the  corpse  and  buried  it,  the  rope  with  which  his  hands  were  tied,  and  everything  they 
could  obtain,  used  at  his  execution  (as  it  seems  from  the  narrative),  and  this  according  to  their 
law,  before  sundown.—  Year  Hook,  p.  1383.  *  See  work,  p.  36  et  seq. 


Early  Forms  and  Uses  79 

excitement,  and  exertion,  ami  anxiety  whicii  are  more  intolerable  than 
the  anguish  of  death  itself.  i\Il  the  large  vessels  al^out  the  heart,  and  all 
the  veins  and  arteries  in  that  part  of  the  system,  on  account  of  the 
accumulation  and  pressure  of  blood,  are  the  source  of  inexpressible 
misery. 

"  V.  The  degree  of  anguish  is  gradual  in  its  increase,  and  the  person 
crucified  is  able  ti)  live  under  it,  commonly  till  the  third,  and  sometimes 
till  the  seventh  day." 

As  we  would  be  glad  to  relieve  God's  once  chosen  people  from  any  of 
the  crime  and  shame  of  rejecting  their  Saviour,  so  we  catch  at  even  such 
a  straw  as  the  following  tradition  given  by  Southey:  ah  of  the  jews 

"  When  Toledo  was  recovered  from  the  Moors  by  Alonzo  "°'  DeLth  of  our 
VI.,  the  Jews  assured  him  that  they  were  descendants  from  ^°"^- 

part  of  the  ten  tribes  sent  by  Nebuchadnezzar  into  Spain,  and  that  when 
Caiaphas  the  High  Priest  wrote  to  their  ancestors,  they  objected  to  the 
death  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  asserting  that  the  prophecies  appeared  to  be 
fulfilled  in  that  just  person.  This  answer  is  said  to  be  preserved  in  the 
archives  of  Toledo."  ' 

Section  2.  Voluntary  Crucifixion. — Instances  have  occurred  of  per- 
sons, who,  being  influenced  by  fanatical  enthusiasm,  have  voluntarily 
undergone  the  fearful  torture  of  crucifixion. 

In  1756,  at  Paris,  two  girls,  pupils  in  a  Roman  Catholic  sisterhood, 
suiTered  crucifixion  for  the  profane  purpose  of  exhibiting  a  lively  image 
of  the  Saviour's  Passion.  Each  was  nailed  to  a  cross,  through  the  hands 
and  feet,  and  continued  in  that  position  for  more  than  three  hours. 
After  the  nails  were  drawn,  and  the  wounds  dressed,  the  sisters  sat  down 
to  a  repast,  pretending  that  the  operation  had  been  attended  with  no 
pain,  and  that  on  the  contrary  they  had  experienced  exquisite  pleasure. 
The\'  had  indeed,  by  wonderful  self-command,  suppressed  all  audible  in- 
dications of  anguish;  but  their  agony,  specially  at  the  drawing  of  the 
nails,  was  shown  by  writhing,  and  other  unequivocal  demonstrations. 

'Southey  also  quotes  a  Jewisli  authority,  who  states  that  there  are  three  different  races  of 
Jews.  "One,  who  took  counsel  for  the  death  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth;  these  are  in  continual 
motion.  The  second,  who  urged  on  his  sufferings  :  these  never  can  look  any  man  in  the  face 
and  with  difficulty  can  raise  their  eyes  to  Heaven.  The  third  were  the  descendants  of  David, 
who  strove  to  prevent  the  death  of  Christ,  and  shut  themselves  in  the  temple  that  they  might  not 
witness  it  :  these  are  affable,  good  men,  who  love  their  neighbors  and  can  look  anywhere." — 
Don  Roderick,  p.  iSl,  ed.  lSl6. 


8o 


History  of  the  Cross 


In  a  second  exhibition  by  the  sisterhood,  two  of  their  number,  Fanny 
and  Mary,  were  the  insane  victims.  Fanny  suffered  with  the  greatest 
heroism.  She  remained  upon  the  cross  for  three  hours,  and  was  shifted 
during  that  time  in  a  great  variety  of  positions.  But  Mary,  who  was 
lacking  in  faith,  or  fortitude,  shuddered  at  the  fastening  of  the  nails,  and 
in  less  than  an  hour  shouted  for  relief.  She  was  accordingly  taken  from 
the  cross  and  carried  out  of  the  chamber  in  a  state  of  insensibility. 

These  instances  may  have  been  among  the  followers  of  the  Abb6 
Paris,  commonly  known  as  Convulsiouarics.  These  fanatics  afford  other 
examples.  One  of  them.  Sister  Felicite,  declared  that  she  had  been 
crucified /'Krw/i'-f'wr  times!  Probably  an  exaggeration.  Five  others  of 
the  same  sect  are  mentioned,  one  of  whom  suffered  twice,  another  three 
times.     They  remained  upon  the  crosses  for  different  periods,  varying 

from  half  an  hour  to  nearly  four  hours,  yet 
they  uttered  no  cries,  lost  but  little  blood, 
and  all  speedily  reco\y;red. 

As  late  as  1787,  a  girl  was  crucified  in 
the  parish  criurch  of  Fareins,  near  Trevou.x, 
in  the  diocese  of  Lyons.  As  may  be  con- 
jectured. Good  Frida}'  was  the  day  profaned 
by  this  exhibition." 

There  is  also  a  very  curious  instance  of 
a  self-inflicted  crucifixion.      Matthew  Lovat 
Self-Crucifixion,    was    a    shocHKiker    in    Venice. 
Matthew  Lovat.  Q,^  September  21,  1803,  having 
made  a  cross  of  the  wood  of  his  bedstead, 
he  attempted  to  fasten  himself  to  it  in  the 
street  called  the  Cross  of  Biri,  but  was  pre- 
vented   as   he   was  about    to   drive   the   nail 
into  his  left  foot.     Three  years  after  this,  he 
Self-Cruciii.\ion  of  Matthew  Lovat.      made  a  second  attempt  which  was  more  suc- 
cessful. 
Having  prepared   a  cross,    he   stripped    himself   naked   except    for   a 
girdle  about  his  loins.      h'earing  that  he  would  not  be  able  to  attach  him- 
self securely  to  the  cross,  he  covered  the  lower  ]iart  with  a  net,  extending 
from    the   suppcdaiiaiin   to   the  transverse.      i  laving    introduced   himself 
'  Nealc,  Hisl.  of  the  yanscnisls,  p.  58. 


Early  Forms  and  Uses  8i 

into  this,  he  next  drove  a  nail  throuL^h  the  pahn  of  his  rij^ht  hand  by 
striking  it  on  the  floor  until  the  point  appeared  on  the  outside.  He  then 
drove  a  nail  throu,i,di  both  feet,  fastening  them  to  the  wood.  lying 
himself  around  the  waist  to  the  cross,  he  next  wounded  himself  in  the 
side  with  a  knife.  He  was  yet  in  the  room:  to  show  himself  to  the 
people  required  the  exercise  of  much  fortitude  and  resolution.  The  foot 
of  the  cross  having  been  placetl  Lipon  the  window-sill,  he  di'ew  himself 
forward  by  means  of  his  fingers  pressing  on  the  floor,  until  the  lower 
end,  overbalancing  the  rest,  the  cross  fell  outside  of  the  house  and  hung 
by  ropes  previously  fixed  to  sustain  it.  He  then  fastened  the  right  hand, 
already  pierced  by  the  nail,  to  its  proper  place,  but  after  driving  the 
nail  through  the  left  hand  he  was  unable  to  affix  it.  This  took  place  at 
eight  o'clock  in  the  morning.  As  soon  as  he  was  seen  he  was  taken  down 
and  carried  to  the  hospital  where  his  wounds  were  completely  cured.' 

Section  3.  Crucifixion  of  Children  by  the  Jews. — The  Jews  have 
been  accused  of  crucifying  young  children  upon  Good  Friday,  in  derision 
of  the  solemn  event  then  commemorated,  and  in  revenge  for  the  loss  of 
their  prosperity.  The  names  of  some  of  their  \-ictims  have  been  pre- 
served in  the  Hagiology  of  the  Roman  Church:  S.S.  William  of  Nor- 
wich, said  to  have  suffered  in  1137;  Richard  of  Fontoise,  in  1182;  Hugh 
of  Lincoln,  in  1255,"  for  whose  death  eighteen  Jews  were  hanged;  Simon 
of  Trent,  in  1472.  A  child  in  Norwich,  in  1235,  was  stolen  by  the 
Israelites,  circumcised,  and  his  crucifixion  attempted  ;  but  the  offenders 
were  discovered  and  compelled  to  pay  a  fine  of  fifty  thousand  njarks.^ 
Another  child  was  crucified  in  Northampton,  for  ^vhom  fifty  Jews  were 
drawn  at  horses'  tails  and  hanged. 

S.  Hugh  of  Lincoln  is  the  most  celebrated  of  these  youthful  martyrs. 
Matthew  Paris  gives  a  detailed  account  of  the  tortures  inflicted  on  this 
saint.      He  was  fed  ten  days  with  milk,  then,  the  Jews  being 

.  Hugh  of  Lincoln. 

assembled,   each  individual  stabbed  him  with  a  knife;    he 
was  forced  to  drink  esel,  was  mocked  as  Jesus,  the  false  prophet,  cruci- 
fied, and,  finally,  pierced  in  the  side  with  a  lance.      The  body  was  thrown 

'  For  a  full  account,  see  Cesare  Ruggiere,  M.D.,  Xarrativc  of  the  Critcifixion  of  Matthew 
Lovat,  Pamphleteer,  vol,  iii.,  pp.  361-376;  Winslow,  Anatomy  of  SiiiciJe.  pp.  329-337; 
Stroud,  Physical  Causes  of  the  Death  of  Christ,  pp.  372-375. 

^  About  1254,  Alexander  IV.  being  Pope,  seventy-one  Jews  were  imprisoned  on  charge  of 
crucifying  a  boy,  of  which  fact  twenty-five  knights  made  oath, — Oxford  Tables  of  Chronology. 

"  F.  C.  H.,  Notes  a>id  Queries,  2d  ser,,  vol,  viii.,  p.  261, 


82  History  of  the  Cross 

into  a  well  where  it  was  found  by  a  miracle.     One  of  the  Jews  being 
arrested,  confessed  that  his  nation  did  so  every  year.' 

A  statue  of  freestone,  twenty  inches  high,  of  S.  Hugh  existed  until 
1779.  This  had  been  removed  from  his  tomb  and  was  found  behind  the 
high  altar  of  the  Cathedral  of  Lincoln.'  Chaucer  immortalizes  him  in 
the  Prioress's  tale. 

"  O,  yonge  Hew  of  Lincoln  slain  also 

With  cursed  Jews,  as  it  is  notable. 
For  it  is  but  a  litel  while  ago. 

Pray  eke  for  us,  we  sinful  folk  unstable, 

That  of  his  mercy  God  so  merciable. 
On  us  his  grete  mercie  multiplie. 
For  reverence  of  his  moder  ALirie." 

In  art  S.  Hugh  is  represented  as  a  child  about  three  years  old,  nailed 
upon  a  cross,  or  standing  with  a  palm  in  one  hand  and  a  cross  in  the 
other.  S.  Simon  of  Trent,  as  a  child  with  a  cross  by  his  side,  or  cruci- 
fied, with  a  man  cutting  his  breast ;  or,  as  in  a  picture  attributed  to 
Agostino  Caracci,  holding  a  palm  in  one  hand,  in  the  other  the  long 
bodkin  with  which  his  side  was  pierced.  S.  William  of  Norwich,  as  a 
child  crucified,  or  crowned  with  thorns,  holding  two  nails,  a  knife  in  his 
left  side;  or  as  a  child  bound  to  two  posts,  but  one  foot  nailed,  the  Jews 
mocking  him  and  one  stabbing  his  left  side  and  catching  the  blood  in  a 
bowl ;  or  three  nails  in  his  hand  and  a  hammer  in  his  left ;  or  with  the  cross 
in  his  right  hand  and  three  nails  in  his  left,  the  wounds  in  his  hands 
and  feet  bleeding.  These  instances  of  martyrdom  have  been  generally 
believed  to  have  occurred,  but  Mrs.  Jameson  speaks  of  them  as  "  real  or 
imaginary,"  and  Southey  strongly  protests  against  their  being  authentic' 

'  Matthew  Paris,  pp.  912-913;  Gent.  Mug.,  1795,  p.  372.         "^  ArcluTologia,  vol.  i.,  p.  26. 

'Jameson,  Legends  of  Monastic  Orders,  2<1  ed.,  p.  137.  Southey  says:  "  During  those 
ages  when  tlie  Jews  were  objects  of  popular  hatred  throughout  Cliristeudoni,  and  when  the 
slightest  excitement  sufficed  for  setting  the  rabble  loose  to  butcher  them  and  sack  their  houses,  a 
common  pretext  for  such  atrocities  was  to  assert  that  they  had  crucified  a  Christian  child,  or  in- 
sulted a  crucifix,  or  profaned  a  consecrated  wafer,  and  that  the  murder,  or  the  s.acrilege,  had 
been  discovered  by  a  miracle.  .\  confession  of  the  imputed  crime  was  forced  from  the  parties  by 
torture,  after  which  they  were  put  to  the  cruellest  death  that  exasperated  bigotry  could  devise. 
The  supposed  victim  was  then  made  a  popular  saint.  .  .  .  Such  instances  ...  I  be- 
lieve have  occurred  in  every  country  where  the  papal  power  has  been  acknowledged,  to  tlie  re- 
proach of  all.  .  .  .  Regardless  alike  of  probability  and  humanity,  the  local  ecclesiastical 
authorities  entertained  these  charges,  inconsistent  as  they  were,  contented  with  such  ]iroof  as 
couhl  he  wrung  from  flesh  and  blood  by  the  extremity  of  torture." — Letters  to  Chas.  Butler,  vin- 
dicating the  C/iurth  0/ England,  p.  414. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   LEGENDS   OF   THE   CROSS 

Stxtioii  I. — Its  Fabled  Antiquity.  Section  3. —  Traditio)is  Respecting  the 
Wood  of  the  Cross.  Section  j. —  '/'he  Miracu/ous  Appea?'ances  of 
the  Cross 

THE  germ  of  the  so-called  Legend  of  the  Cross  is  found  in  the 
Apocryphal  gospel  of  Nicodemus,  but  it  has  been  developed  so 
that,  while  the  different  versions  agree  in  the  main  ideas,  it  is  difificult  to 
dovetail  these  details  so  that  a  connected  story  can  be  presented.' 
Omitting  some  minor  particulars,  it  is  as  follows: 

Section  i.  Its  Fabled  Antiquity. — Adam  was  weary  of  life,  and 
longed  to  die.  Calling  his  son  Seth,  he  bade  him  "  Go  to  the  gates  of 
Eden  and  ask  S.  Michael,  who  guards  the  Tree  of  Life,  to 

°  Mission  of  Sclh 

send  me  some  of   the  oil   of    mercy   which   God    promised        fortheoiiof 

Mercy. 

me  when  he  thrust  me  out  of  Paradise."  Seth  replied, 
"  Father,  I  am  ready,  but  I  know  not  the  way." — "  Go,"  commanded 
Adam,  "  by  that  valley  which  lieth  Eastward;  there  is  a  green  path 
along  which  you  will  find  blackened  footprints,  for  where  my  feet 
and  those  of  your  mother  trod  in  leaving  the  garden  no  grass  has 
since  grown." 

When  Seth  approached  the  gates  of  Eden  he  found  them  guarded  by 

'  The  principal  authorities  are  the  Aurea  Legenda  of  Jacobus  de  Voragine,  and  a  curious 
Dutch  blocli-book,  Gescliiedenis  van  het  heylighe  Crtiys,  printed  by  J.  Veldener  in  1483.  Of  the 
latter  only  three  copies  are  known  to  exist  ;  one  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Brussels,  one  in  the  col- 
lection of  Mr.  Schinkel  at  The  Hague,  and  another  in  the  library  of  Lord  Spencer.  M.  Berjeau 
has  translated  and  reproduced  in  fac-simile  the  last,  with  additions  from  a  French  MS.  of  the 
thirteenth  century  which  is  in  the  British  Museum.  The  legend  is  also  found  in  the  Vita  Chrisla, 
printed  at  Troyes  in  1577,  and  in  the  Catalogus  Sanctorum  of  Peter  de  Notalibus.  It  has  been 
condensed  and  given  in  a  modern  dress  in  Lord  Lindsay's  Christian  Art,  Mrs.  Jameson  and 
Lady  Eastlake's  History  of  Our  Lord,  and  S.  Baring-Gould's  Curious  Myths  of  l/u-  .Middle  .'l-^fs. 

83 


84 


History  of  the  Cross 


an  angel  in  whose  hands  was  a  sword  of  living  fire,  but  he  was  permitted 
a  glimpse  of  the  Paradise  lost  by  his  father's  transgression.  Setli  beheld 
a  crystal  fountain  whose  sands  were  of  silver,  through  which  the  water 
rolled  in  four  mighty  ri\-ers.  Before  the  fountain  was  a  gigantic  tree, 
but  bare  of  fruit  and  foliage;  around  its  trunk  a  terrible  serpent  had 
writhed  himself  and  had  burned  the  bark  and  devoured  the  leaves.  Be- 
neath the  tree  was  an 
awful  precipice,  for  its 
roots  reached  to  the 
depths  of  Hell.  The 
only  human  inhabitant 
there  was  Cain,  who 
strove  to  climb  the  tree 
to  re-enter  Paradise, 
but  the  roots,  as  if  in- 
stinct with  life,  twined 
around  and  entangled 
the  murderer,  even 
penetrating  his  flesh. 
A]:)palled,  Seth  raised 
his  eyes  to  implore 
mercy,  and  gazed  at 
the  top  of  the  tree. 
Its  head  reached  unto 


Adam  Sends  Seth  to  Paradise  for  Some  of  the  Oil  of  Mercy. 
From  \"eldener's  The  Lcgi-ndaiy  History  of  the  Cross. 


Heaven,  and  its  brandies  were  covered  w  ith  foliage,  flowers,  and  fruit, 
and  what  was  most  beautiful  of  all,  a  little  babe  was  listening  to  the 
songs  of  seven  white  doves  circling  around  him,  and  a  woman  more 
glorious  and  lovely  than  the  moon  bore  the  child  in  her  arms.' 

'  The  above  passage  is  given  from  S.  Baring-Gould's  Myths.  It  is  not  to  he  found  in  the 
authorities  to  which  the  writer  has  access  : 

"  In  an  Apocryphal  MS.  entitled  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Moses,  in  the  possession  of  tlie 
Hon.  Robert  Curzon,  is  recorded  the  following  conversation  between  God  and  Adam  after  the 
Fall ;  '  Then  I  called  him,  saying,  Oh  .\dam  !  thou  hast  transgressed  my  command  ;  lift  up 
thine  eyes.  Then  I  said  unto  him,  What  seest  thou  ?  He  said,  I  see  a  tree  standing  above  my 
head. 

"  '   riien  I  answered  Iiini,  and  said  untu  liini  Thou  hast  spoken  trutli. 

"  '  lie  said.  Oh  Lord  !  this  tree  above  my  head  is  like  a  cross.'  " — Jameson,  //ist.  of  Our  Lord, 
vol.  i.,   p.  io8. 

Ill  an  ancient  commentary  on  S.  Matthew,  the  star  which  appeared  to  the  Wise  Men  had 
the  form  of  a  radiant  child  bearing  a  cross. — Jameson,  Legends  of  the  Madonna,  p.  211. 


Legends  of  the  Cross 


85 


The  angel  at  the  gate  refused  to  give  Seth  the  oil  of  mercy,  telling 
him  that  it  could  not  be  bestowed  u\n>n  man  until  five  thousand  five 
hundred  years  had  elapsed,  but,  in  token  of  future  pardon,  he  gave  him 
three  seeds  from  the  Tree  of  Life,'  and  commanded  him  to  bury  them 
with  his  father.  So  Seth  returned.  When  Adam  heard  the  message  of 
the  angel  he  became  merry,  and  laughed  for  the  first  time  since  his 
transgression,  and  said  : 
"  O  God,  I  have  lived 
long  enough.  Take  my 
soul  from  me."  Adam 
died  the  third  day  after 
Scth's  return,  and  his 
sons  buried  him  in  the 
Valley  of  Hebron." 

The  three  seeds  pro- 
duced three  saplings, 
which    mar-      p,„j^,^  <,f 

Vellously     be-  the  seeds. 

came  one,  yet  preserved 
their  distinct  natures. 
This  sapling  Moses 
found,  and  plucked  it 
as  his  rod ' ;  it  was  this 
that  sweetened  the  bit- 
ter waters  of  Marah,  and 


The  Arcliaiiyirl  .Michael  dives  Seth  Three  Seeds  uf  tlie  Tree  of 
Life.      From  Veldener's    Tin-  Legendary  History  of  the  Cross. 


drew   forth  water  from  the  rock  in  the  wilderness.      As  the  Prophet  was 
punished  for  his  presumption   in  not  calling  upon  God  when  he  smote 

'  The  usual  reading  is  the  Tree  of  Knowledge.  "  But  the  Aungelle  seyd  to  him  that  he 
myghte  not  have  of  the  Oyle  of  mercy.  But  he  toke  him  three  greynes  of  the  same  Tree  that  his 
fadre  ete  the  appulle  off,  and  bad  him,  als  sone  as  his  fadre  was  ded,  that  he  sholde  putte  theise 
three  Greynes  undre  his  tonge,  and  grave  him  so  :  and  he  dide." — Voiage  and  Travaile  of  Sir 
John  Mauiideville,  p.  13.  The  angel  gave  .Seth  a  branch  of  the  tree  whereof  Adam  had  eaten, 
bidding  him  plant  it  on  Mount  Lebanon,  and  that  when  it  bore  fruit  his  father  should  be  healed. 
— Legenda  A  urea. 

-  The  tree,  with  the  bones  of  Adam,  was  preserved  in  the  ark  by  Noah,  who  divided  the 
relics  among  his  sons.  The  skull  fell  to  the  share  of  Shem,  who  buried  it  in  a  mount  of  Judea 
called  from  this  circumstance  Calvary  and  Golgotha.  The  tree  Noah  himself  planted  on  Mount 
Lebanon.  It  was  at  once  palm,  cypress,  and  cedar. — Tentzelius'  A'timial  Treatise,  quoted  in 
Southey's  Omniana.  vol.  i.,  p.  2S1.  The  woods  here  are  evidently  typical  of  Victory,  Death,  and 
Eternity. 

^  See  chap,  ii.,  "  Types  of  the  Cross,"  for  a  somewhat  different  story  of  Moses'  rod. 


86 


History  of  the  Cross 


Setli  Piuries  Adam  and  I'utb  the  Three  Seeds  of  the  Tree  of  Life 

under  his  Tongue. 

From  V'eldeiier's  The  Lf:gt'ndajy  Jli story  of  the  Cross. 


the  rock  the  second  time,  he  was  not  permitted  to  carry  the  rod  into  the 

Promised  Land,  so  he 
planted  it  in  RIoab. 
David,  being  moved  by 
an  angelic  vision  to 
transplant  it  to  Jerusa- 
lem, sought  it  for  three 
days    before    he    found 

David  Finds  't.  On  his 
the  Tree.  Way     tO     tllC 

Holy  City  di\ers  mir- 
acles were  wrought  ; 
the  sick  were  healed, 
a  leper  cleansed,  and 
three  black  men  made 
white  b\' its  touch.  The 
monarch  planted  it  in 
that  part  of  his  garden 
to  which  he  resorted  for  private  devotion,  and  under  it  bewailed  his 
grievous  sins  ;  he  also 
begirt  it  with  thirty- 
rings  of  sapphire,  and 
built  a  wall  around  it. 

In     time,     the    tree 

became     gigantic,     and 

Solom  on 

Solomon  Uses  it. 

desired  to 
use  it  as  a  coluinn  in  the 
Temple;  but,  cut  it  as 
the)'  might,  the  work- 
men found  that  the 
beam  miraculously  be- 
came cither  too  Ion;.; 
or  too  short  for  their 
purpose.  In  an!_,u;r  it 
was    thrown    aside.      A 

rhf  '1  hiut'  .Seeds  Sprini^  [']'. 
woman,  named   SihvUa,  Fr„ni  \eldcner's  Vhe  Lcgeiuhuy  History  of  the  Cross. 


Legends  of  the  Cross 


87 


sat  upon  it  to  rest;  suddenly  litT  clothes  took  fire,  and  she-  pro])hcsicd 
that  Christ  shi.iuhl  hant^-  u])(in  that  beam,  whereupon  the  Jews  beat  her 
to  death,  and  then  threw  the  beam  as  a  foot-bridge  across  a  stream  that 
it  might  be  trampled  under  foot.     When  Balkis,  the  Oueen 

"^  Visit  and 

of   Sheba,'  visited    King   Solomon,   she,    prophetically  dis-         Prophecy  or 

Queen  of  Sheba. 

cerning  its  future  destmation,  refused  to  walk  o\er  it,  but, 
worshipping  it,  took  off  her  sandals  and  forded  the  stream.  And  she 
declared  to  Solomon  that  upon  that  holy  wood  the  Saviour  of  Adam 
and  his  posterity  would  suffer.  Thereupon  the  King  commanded  that 
the  beam  should  be  overlaid  with  silver,  gold,  and  jewels,  and  placed  it 
over  the  door  of  the 
Tem[ile,  which  faced  the 
rising  sun.  His  grand- 
son, Abijah,  coveting 
the  treasure,  stripped 
the    adorn- ^^,.^^^„j,^^„^ 

mentS  from  Conceals  the 

Sacred  Beam. 

the    wood, 

and,  toconceal  the  theft,  j 
buried  the  beam  in  the 
ground.  Aspringwellcd 
forth  from  the  place, 
which  in  after  times  was 
known  as  the  Pool  of 
Bethesda,  and  the  an- 
gel, to  whom  was  com- 


1  he  L  rucih-xiim. 
From  Veldener's  T/te  Legendary  History  of  the  Cross. 


mitted  the  care  of  the 
sacred  wood,  at  times 
"  troubled  the  water,"  and  the  tree,  giving  forth  its  virtue,  healed  the  sick. 
At  the  time  of  the  crucifixion  of  our  Lord,  the  wood  floated  to  the 
surface,  and  from  it  the  Cross  was  formed  in  which  were   u  Reveals  itseif 

r  •  r  ^  if  ..11  when  Needed 

four  species    of  wood,    yet   made    of    one    tree:  the  palm,  forchrisfs 

cypress,  cedar,  and  olive.  Sacrifice. 

When  S.  Helena,  the  mother  of  Constantine,  visited  Jerusalem,  the 

Spirit  having  infused  into  her  the  wish  to  discover  the  Cross  of  our  Lord, 

'  Bruce  calls  her  Maqueda.  The  kings  of  Abyssinia  have  always  claimed  to  he  the  lineal 
descendants  of  Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba. — Sale,  JiToran,  vol.  ii.,  p.  I74.  note;  Bruce, 
Travels,  vol.  ii.,  p.  165. 


88 


History  of  the  Cross 


she  called  together  the  wise  men,   and  elders  of  the  Jews,  who,   much 

fearing,  sought  anxiously  among  themselves  what  this  assembling  could 

,  ,      ,  mean.      One  of  them,  named  Judas,  said  :  "  I  know  that  she 

S.  Helena's  -^ 

Mission.  wishes  to  learn  where  is  the  wood  of  the  Cross  upon  which 

Jesus  was  crucified,  but  beware  lest  ye  reveal  it,  for  as  soon  as  that  Cross 
shall  be  found,  our  Law  will  be  done  away.  I  have  learned  this  from  my 
forefathers,  one  of  whom,  Zaccheus,  was  the  father  of  Stephen."  That 
was  the  protomartyr.  But  the  Jews  declared  that  they  had  never  heard 
these  things  before,  and  agreed  on  no  account  to  re\eal  where  was  the 
wood  of  the  Cross.      Rut  when  they  were  brought  to  the  Empress,  they 

were  terrified  by  her 
threats  of  death  by  fire, 
and  pointed  out  Judas 
as  a  just  man,  and  the 
son  of  a  prophet,  who 
was  skilled  in  their  law 
and  traditions.  The  old 
man  being  obdurate, 
S.  Helena  commanded 
him  to  be  cast  into  a 
pit  to  starve  until  he 
disclosed  the  truth.  He 
endured  the  agonies  of 
hunger  for  si.x  days;  on 
the  se\enth  day  he 
yielded,  and  led  the 
Empress  to  Calvary. 
Upon  the  sacred  mount 
was  a  temple  of  Venus, 
which  Satan  had  subtilely  caused  Hadrian  to  build  in  order  that  when 
the  Christians  came  to  that  spot  to  worship  they  might  be  charged  with 
adoring  the  Paphian  godtless.  Judas  having  prayed,  the  earth  trembled, 
and  a  fragrant  odor  was  diffusetl.  .S.  Helena  commanded  the  pagan 
temple  to  be  dcmolislied  aiul  its  foundatimi  ])loughcd  u[). 

Then  Judas  began  to  dig  vigorously,  and  at  the  depth  of  twenty  feet 
he  foLind  three  crosses.  But  a  new  difficulty  arose,  for  they  could  not 
distinguish  the  Cross  of  Christ  from  that  of  the  thieves.     And  about  the 


#  0^%"^^ 


The  Jews  Bury  the  Crosses. 
From  Veldeiier's  T/w  Legendary  History  of  the  Cross. 


w     . 


c  (^ 


go  History  of  the  Cross 

ninth  hour  a  certain  dead  man  was  carried  by,  and  Judas  stopped  the  bier 

and  laid  the  first  and  the  second  cross  upon  the  dead  man,  but  he  moved 

not.     Then  they  laid  the  third   Cross  upon  him,   and  im- 

Discovery  of  the 

Cross  and  Subse-  mediately  he  came  to  life.     A  certain  woman  also,  of  the 

quent  Miracles.  ,.,.  ,.,,,,,  ,  «, 

first  rank  m  the  city,  was  l\"ing  nali  dead,  to  whom  IViacarius, 
the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  applied  the  first  and  second  crosses,  but  they 
profited  nothing;  but  the  third  being  laid  upon  her,  she  rose  up  whole. 
But  the  devil  \\'as  vexed,  and  cried  in  anguish,  "  By  the  first  Judas  I 
gained  many  souls,  but  by  the  second  Judas  I  have  lost  all  that  I 
gained  ";  he  also  threatened  him  with  torments  and  persecution,  which 
came  to  pass  under  the  reign  of  Julian  the  Apostate.  For  Judas  was 
converted  by  these  miracles,  and  was  baptized,  his  name  being  changed 
to  Quiriacus,  and,  after  the  death  of  Macarius,  he  became  Bishop  of 
Jerusalem. 

S.  Helena  desired  also  the  nails  by  which  our  Lord  was  fastened  to 
the  Cross,  and  Bishop  Quiriacus  having  pra\-ed,  the  nails  immediately 

appeared  upon  the  ground,   glittering  like  gold;  being  de- 

Discovery  of  ^i  ^  ^  ^  -^^  &  '  o 

the  Nails.  livercd   to  the  Empress,   she  reverently  adored  them,    and 

caused  one  to  be  placed  in  the  crown,  or  helmet,  of  her  son  Constantine; 
another  was  forged  as  a  bit,  or  placed  upon  the  bridle  of  his  war-horse, 
in  verification  of  the  prophet's  words,  "  In  that  day  shall  be  upon  the 
bells  [margin  drid/cs]  of  the  horses.  Holiness  to  the  Lord  "  (Zech.  xiv., 
20);  and  the  third  she  reserved  for  herself;  but,  being  in  a  dangerous 
storm  on  the  Adriatic,  she  threw  it  into  the  sea,  which  until  that  time 
had  been  a  whirlpool.  Some  say  there  was  a  fourth  nail,  which  was 
placed  in  the  statue  of  Constantine  which  overlooked  the  city  of  Rome. 
The  Cross  of  the  Lord  she  divided  ;  part  she  sent  to  her  son,  and  the 
rest  she  enclosed  in  a  silver  shrine  and  left  at  Jerusalem.  And  she  ap- 
pointed the  Feast  of  the  Invention  of  the  Muly  Cross  to  be  solemnly 
celebrated  every  year. 

And  in  the  course  of  many  seasons,  as  time  flowed  on,  the  Lord  per- 
mitting his  peopli-  to  be  scourged  for  their  sins,  Chosroes,  King  of  the 
.    „  Persians,    subdued    all    the   kingdoms    of    the    East    to    his 

Cross  in  Posses-  ^ 

sion  of  Chosroes.  tloniiiiion.  But,  comiugto  Jerusalem,  lu;  fled  terrified  from 
the  sepulchre  of  the  Lord,  yet  carried  away  the  portion  of  the  Lord's 
Cross  left  there  by  S.  Helena.  Wishing  to  be  adored  as  a  god,  he 
caused  to  be  constructed  a  tower  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones, 


92  History  of  the  Cross 

and  placed  therein  images  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  By  slender  con- 
duits artificial  rain  fell,  and  chariots  drawn  with  a  great  noise  in  a  subter- 
ranean passage  shook  the  tower  and  imitated  thunder.  And  giving  up 
the  kingdom  to  his  son  Chosroes,  he  enthroned  himself  in  the  tower  as 
the  Father,  and  put  the  Cross  upon  his  right  in  place  of  the  Son,  and  a 
cock  for  the  Holy  Spirit.' 

Then   the   Emperor  Heraclius,  being  roused  from  his  natural  indol- 
ence by  this  blasphemous  impiety,  came  with  a  mighty  army  against  the 
son  of  Chosroes  to  recover  the  holy  Cross.     And  thc\-  met 

Rescue  of  the 

Cross  by  by  the  river  Danube,  and  the  two  princes  agreed  to  fight 

Heraclius.  i         i      .  ,  ,      i  i  1111 

in  Single  combat  upon  the  bridge,  and  that  he  who  should 
remain  victor  should  dispose  of  the  army  of  the  other.  Heraclius,  com- 
mending himself  to  God  and  the  holy  Cross,  after  a  severe  conflict,  over- 
came his  antagonist,  who,  refusing  to  be  baptized,  was  slain.  "  And 
immediately  the  whole  army  of  the  Persians,  as  if  by  dixine  impulse, 
yielded  itself  to  the  Christian  faith  and  received  holy  Baptism." 

Heraclius  offered  to  Chosroes,  as  he  had  revered  the  Cross  after  his 
fashion,  that  his  life  and  kingdom  should  be  preserved.  "  And  that  in- 
fidel not  acquiescing,  Heraclius  straightway  beheaded  him.  But  because 
he  had  been  a  king,  and  had  after  a  manner  honored  the  Cross  of  Christ, 
he  ordered  him  to  be  buried."  The  tower  was  destroyed,  the  silver 
given  to  the  soldiers,  but  the  gold  and  precious  stones  the  Emperor 
reser\ed  to  repair  the  churches  which  the  tyrant  had  destroyed. 

The  rest  of  the  legend  is  given  in  the  quaint  language  of  Caxton's 
version : 

Heraclius  "  thenne  tooke  the  Holy  Crosse  and  brought  it  agaync  to 
Jerusalem.  And  as  he  descended  fro  the  Mount  of  Olyuete  and  wolde 
haue  entred  by  the  gate,  by  whiche  our  Sauyour  wente  to  his  Passyon, 
on   horsbacke   adurned   as  a  kyng,  sodainly  the  stones  of  the  gates  de- 

'  ";\fler  reailini;  this  history,  some  comeption  may  be  formed  of  tlie  important  place  lield 
by  the  cross  in  Christian  Iconography.  'I'he  cross,  as  lias  been  said,  is  not  merely  the  instrti- 
ment  of  the  punishment  of  Jesus  (  In  ist,  but  is  also  the  figure  and  symbol  of  the  Saviour.  Jesus, 
to  an  Iconologist,  is  present  in  tlie  cross  as  well  as  in  the  lamb,  or  the  lion.  Chosroes  flattered 
himself  that  in  possessing  the  cross,  he  possessed  the  Son  of  God,  and  he  had  it  enthroned  on  his 
ris;ht  hand,  just  as  the  Son  is  enthroned  by  Ciod  the  Father,  so  also  the  earliest  Christian  artists, 
when  making  a  representation  of  the  Trinity,  placed  a  cross  beside  the  Father  and  the  Moly 
Spirit  ;  a  cross  only,  without  our  crucified  Lord.  The  cross  did  not  only  recall  Christ  to  mind, 
but  actually  showed  him.  In  Christian  Iconography,  Christ  is  actually  present  under  the  form 
and  semblance  of  the  cross.  The  cross  is  our  crucified  Lord  in  person  :  '  Where  the  cross  is. 
there  is  the  martyr,'  says  S.  Paulinus." — Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  369. 


Legends  of  the  Cross  93 

sccnded  and  ioyiicd  lliL-in  togyder  in  the  gate  lil-:c  a  wallc,  and  all  the 
peo[)le  were  greatly  aba.sshed.  And  theiine  the  angel  of  our  Lorde  ap- 
pvered  vpon  the  gate  holdyng  the  syne  of  the  Crosse  in  his 

^•'  ^  °  J      o  ^  Return  of  the 

honde  &  sayd,  Whan  the  Kyng  of  Heuen  wente  to  hys  Pas-  cross  to 

Jerusalem. 

syon  by  this  gate,  he  was  not  arrayed  lyke  a  kyng,  or  on  liorse- 
backe,  but  came  humbl)-  vppon  an  asse  in  shewynge  the  example  of 
humylytc,  which  he  lefte  to  tiicym  that  honour  hyni.  And  whan  that 
was  sayd  he  departed  &  vanysshed  awaye.  Thenne  the  Emperour  tooke 
of  his  hosen  and  shone  hymself  in  wepynge,  and  despoyled  hym  of  all 
his  clothes  in  to  his  sherte,  and  then  tooke  the  Crosse  of  our  Lorde  and 
bare  it  moche  humbly  vnto  the  gate.  And  anone  the  hardenesse  of  the 
stones  sette  the  celestyal  commandemcnt,  and  renieued  anone  and  opened 
and  gaaf  entre  vnto  all  theym  that  entred.  And  thus  was  the  precious 
tree  of  the  Crosse  restabl\'.shed  in  his  place,  and  the  ancient  miracles 
renewed."  A  dead  man  was  raised,  four  paralytics  were  cured,  ten 
affected  with  leprosy  cleansed,  divers  devils  were  cast  out  and  diseases 
healed,  and  as  a  proof  of  the  divine  blessing  the  sweet  odor,  that  had 
departed  from  the  day  when  the  Cross  had  been  removed  from  the  tower 
of  Chosroes,  returned,  and  refreshed  them  all  with  its  sweetness. 
"  Thenne  the  Emperour  dyde  repayre  the  chirches  and  gaft  to  them 
grete  gyftes  and  after  retourned  home  to  his  Emjjyre." 

This  Exaltation  of  the  Cross  really  took  place  on  September  14, 
about  A.D.  620.  The  festival  has  greater  antiquity,  having  been  insti- 
tuted when  S.  Helena  placed  the  Cross  on  the  summit  of  an  altar, 
September  24,  A.D.  326. 

Section  2.     Traditions  Respecting  the  Wood  of  the  Cross. — To 

various  trees  is  assigned  the  mournful  honor  of  furnishing  the  material  of 
the  holy  Cross.  Perhaps  the  most  general  tradition  ascribes  ^^.e  cross  Made 
it   to   the   aspen,'    because    the   leaves   ever    tremble,    as   if       ofthe Aspen. 

'  Other  traditions  cluster  around  the  aspen — ex.gr.:  All  the  trees  drooped  their  leaves  at  the 
time  of  their  Creator's  sacrifice,  but  the  aspen  haughtily  asked,  "  What  are  thy  sufferings  to  us? 
the  plants  need  no  atonement,  we  are  not  fallen."  The  Angel  of  Death  breathed  upon  the 
boaster,  and  it  has  trembled  ever  since.  Mrs.  Jameson  also  relates  a  legend  of  the  journey  of 
the  infant  Jesus  and  the  blessed  Virgin  and  S.  Joseph,  when  flying  from  Judea  to  Egypt.  As 
they  passed  through  a  forest  of  trees,  they  would  have  lost  their  way,  but  for  the  guidance  of  an 
angel.  As  they  entered  the  forest  all  the  trees  bowed  themselves  in  reverence  to  the  infant  Ciod, 
only  the  aspen  in  her  exceeding  pride  refused  to  acknowledge  Him,  and  stood  upright.  Then 
the  infant  Christ  pronounced  a  curse  against  her  for  her  arrogance,  and  her  leaves  have  trembled 
ever  since. — LcgcnJs  of  the  Madonna,  p.  234. 


94  History  of  the  Cross 

shuddering  at  the  remembrance  of  the  awful  use  in  which  it  had  been 
once  employed. 

Anciently,  it  was  a  widespread  beH^-f  that  the  Cross  of  our  Lord  was 

made  of  the  mistletoe  which  formerly  was  a  large  tree,  but  the  curse 

which  He  bore  who  hung  thereon,  being  in  part  transferred 

Mistletoe  the 

Material  of  to  the  tree  itself,  it  dwindled  away  and  became  the  parasite 

the  Cross.  .  r       ^  ■w~\        •   ^       •  1  •  1 

It  IS  now.  The  ceremonies  of  the  Druids  in  gathering  the 
mistletoe,  or"  All  Heal,"  as  they  called  it,  were  peculiarly  symbolical 
of  the  of^ces  of  the  Cross.  In  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  mistletoe 
furnishes  the  wood  from  which  is  made  the  arrow  with  which  HiidLir,  at 
the  instigation  of  Loki,  kills  Baklur.  Formerly,  small  pieces  of  mistletoe 
were  worn  as  amulets  to  protect  pious  souls  from  the  temptations  of 
Loki. 

In  some  parts  of  Great  Britain  the  elder  is  respected  as  the  wood  which 

bore  the  Lord  of  Life  in  death,   and  some  persons  religiously  abstain 

,.  ,  from  using  it  as  fuel.      In  this  instance  the  legends  respect- 

Cross  Made  t*  &  i^ 

of  Elder.  i,-)g  t-]-,g  (-pgg  pf  Q^r  Saviour  and  that  of  his  betrayer  have 

become  interchanged.  Sir  John  Mandeville  says:  "  Fast  by  the  Pool  of 
Siloam,  is  still  the  elder  tree  on  which  Judas  hanged  himself  in  despair 
wlien  he  sold  and  betrayed  our  Lord."  '  Tliat  this  tradition  was  ac- 
knowledged in  England  as  late  as  the  golden  age  of  Elizabeth  is  seen 
from  the  frequent  references  by  authors  in  her  time  and  previously. 
Shakespeare  thus  plays  with  the  word  in  Loves  Labour's  Lost. 

"  HoliferiH's  :     Begin,  Sir.     You  are  my  elder. 
Biron  :     Well  followed  ;  Judas  was  hanged  on  an  elder." 

Ben  Jonson  says  also  in  Every  Man  in  Llis  Humour 

"  He  shall  be  your  Judas,  and  you 
Shall  be  his  elder  tree  to  hang  on." 

Ni.xon,  in  his  Strange  Footpost,  writes,  "  Our  gardens  when  they  have 
in  them  not  one  of  those  elders  whereupon  so  many  covetous  Judases 
hang  themselves." 

Richard  Flecknoe  also  refers  to  the  same  tree  whose 

'  M.iiKleville,  Travels,  p.  175.  liohn's  e<l.  In  Ciermany  .iiul  Sc.mdinavi.i  llie  eliler  was  sup- 
posed to  be  the  aljode  of  the  goddess  Iluldah  and  her  servants  llie  elves.  Every  Sat.  (\ienna), 
June  7,  1873,  p.  638. 


Legends  of  the  Cross  95 

"  Virtue  oft  from  Judas  came 
Who  hanged'  himself  upon  llial  same." 

Dial  um. 

In  the  epilogue  to  Lilly's  Alexander  and  Caiiipaspc,  the  elder  is  re- 
ferred to  as  a  mark  of  shame.  "  You  may  make  doves  of  vultures,  roses 
of  nettles,  laurel  for  a  garland,  or  elder  for  a  disgrace." 

Shakespeare  makes  it  also  an  emblem  of  grief: 

"  (Irow  patience 
And  let  the  stinking  elder  grief  intwine 
His  perishing  root  with  the  increasing  vine." 

Cyinlhiini-,  Act  iv.,  Sc.  2. 

There  is  a  curious  tradition  that  the  Cross  was  made  of  an  apple-tree, 
derived  from  a  far-fetched  gloss  on  Canticles  viii.,  5.  "I  raised  thee 
up  under  the  apple-tree;  there  thy  mother  brought  thee  The  cross  Made 
forth:  there  she  brought  thee  forth  that  bare  thee."  "  i„  ofan Appie-xree. 
the  Vulgate  the  verse  reads:  "  fid  cornipta  est  mater  tna,  ibi  violata  est 
genetrix  tua."  An  ancient  MS.  in  the  possession  of  Dr.  Adam  Clarke, 
formerly  belonging  to  the  youngest  son  of  Edward  III.,  reads,  "  There 
defouled  is  she  that  got  thee." 

The  oak  also  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  tree  which  contributed  the 

'  P.iit  even  as  to  the  deatli  of  Jiulas  some  differ.  The  doubt  arises  from  the  word  aTti)vi,aTO 
which  may  refer  to  suffocation  witiiout  specifying  the  manner.  .Some  say  he  was  hung  on  a  fig 
tree,  others  on  a  sycamore.  See  Fuller's  Pisgak  View  of  Palestine,  b.  iii,  c.  13.  Euthymius 
and  (Ecumenius  say  that  the  hanging  did  not  kill  him,  but  the  rope  broke  and  he  cast  himself 
headlong.  See  Browne,  Relig.  Med.,  sec.  xxii.,  p.  52;  and  Inquiry  into  Vulgar  and  Common 
Errors,  b.  vii.,  cap.  11.  The  Mussulmans  reverence  all  places  consecrated  to  the  memory  of 
Christ  and  the  blessed  Virgin,  except  the  tomb  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  the  sanctity  of  which  they 
do  not  acknowledge,  for  they  believe  that  Jesus  ascended  into  Heaven,  leaving  the  likeness  of  his 
face  to  Judas,  who  was  crucified  and  buried  in  place  of  his  Master.  Curzon,  Monasteries  of  the 
Levant,  p.  162.  There  is  a  curious  tradition  which  is  occasionally  met  with  in  art.  Judas, 
knowing  that  his  Master  would  descend  into  Hades  and  liberate  the  souls  confined  there,  and 
conduct  them  to  Paradise,  hastened,  after  his  treachery,  to  hang  himself,  in  order  that  he  might 
precede  our  Lord  into  Hades,  and  thus  be  saved.  But  the  Devil  bent  down  the  tree  on  which 
the  traitor  was  suspended,  so  that  his  feet  touched  the  earth,  and  retained  it  in  that  position  until 
Christ  had  passed  through  Hades,  and  then  permitted  the  wretched  soul  "  to  go  to  his  own 
place."  Ciampini,  Vetera  Monimenta,  tom.  iii.,  tab.  ix.,  fig.  31,  gives  an  example  from  the 
brass  doors  of  the  Archiepiscopal  Church  at  Beueventano. 

There  was  a  tree  formerly  called  after  the  traitor,  and  hated  accordingly.  Pulci  in  Morgante 
Maggiore  makes  the  traitor  Ganelon  plan  the  ambush  against  Charlemagne  in  the  pass  of  Ronces- 
valles,  under  the  shade  of  a  Judas  tree. 

'  Have  we  not  here  the  origin  of  the  common  tradition  that  the  apple  was  the  forbidden 
fruit  ?  Refer  to  Clarke  on  text.  Also  Gill  on  Canticles  for  some  other  traditions  more  curious 
than  valualile. 


96  History  of  the  Cross 

material  for  the  altar  of  the  sacrifice,  not  only  because  it  v/as  a  common 

tree  in  Palestine,  and  well  fitted  by  its  strength  for  the  purpose,  but  also 

,»  J     <■      because    the    fraijments    which    bear    the    yjreatest    proba- 

Cross  Made  of  ^  &  i 

the  Oak.  bilit\-  of    gcuuincncss    appear  to  be  of  that  wood.'      The 

oak,  also,  as  Gretser  observes,  has  been  sanctified  by  many  divine  mys- 
teries and  manifestations.  It  was  under  an  oak  that  God  covenanted 
with  Abraham  at  Mamre  for  the  salvation  of  his  seed.  Under  an  oak 
the  angels  awaited  Abraham's  hospitality,  and  repaid  it  by  foretelling 
the  birth  of  Isaac.  Under  an  oak  Deborah,  Rebekah's  nurse,  was 
buried,  and  the  name  of  it  was  called  Allon-bachuth  (Gen.  xxxv.,  8). 
Under  an  oak  Jacob  buried  his  idols;  the  angel  appeared  to  Gideon 
under  an  oak;  and  other  examples  could  be  cited.  Ciaccon,  comment- 
ing on  Isa.  vi.,  \2.  13,  says:  "  And  the  Lord  has  removed  men  far 
away,  and  there  shall  be  a  great  forsaking  in  the  midst  of  the  land.  But 
yet  it  shall  be  a  tenth,  and  it  shall  return  ...  as  an  oak  whose  sub- 
stance is  in  them  when  they  cast  their  leaves;  so  the  holy  seed  shall  be 
in  the  substance  thereof."  And,  continues  the  commentator,  "  so  the 
Jews,  ravished  and  decimated  by  the  Romans,  yet  the  remainder  of 
them,  saved  by  the  oaken  Cro.ss,  preserved  the  seed  of  blessing  and  the 
salvation  of  the  human  race."  ° 

Such  is  the  Legend  of  the  Cross.  One  of  the  most  imaginative  and 
fantastic,  yet  one  of  the  most  popular  myths  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
ever  a  favorite  subject  for  artists  both  in  glass  and  fresco.  It  ap- 
pears at  Troyes,  in  the  windows  of  the  churches  of  S.  Martin  es-vignes, 
of  S.  Pantaleon,  of  S.  Madeleine,  and  of  S.  Nizier.  It  is  frescoed  on 
the  walls  of  the  choir  of  S.  Croce  in  Florence  by  Agnolo  Gaddi,  and 
Pietro  della  Francesca  has  celebrated  it  in  a  series  of  paintings  in  the 
chapel  of  the  Bacci,  in  the  Church  of  S.   l-'rancesco  at  Arezzo. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  example  is  the  fresco  on  the  walls  of  the 
chapel  of  the  Guild  of  the  Holy  Cross  in  the  Church  of  the  Trinity  at 
Stratford-upon-Avon.  The  Guihl  dates  at  least  from  the  year  1296, 
when  it  was  authorized  to  build  a  hospital  and  this  chapel.  Shakespeare 
tloubtless  drank  insiiiraticiii  from  thest-  ])aintings.  but  the  same  sjiirit  of 
vandalism  which  coated  his  bust  with  whitewash  in  like  manner  covered 
these  inestimable  works,  so  that  their  very  existence  was  forgotten;  and 

'  Lipsius,  Df  Crticf,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  13. 
'  Gretser,  Df  Criicv,  HI),  i.,  cap.  6. 


Legends  of  the  Cross  97 

Horace  Walpole  declared  that  no  specimen  of  this  art  (fresco  paintin<j) 
existed  in  En_L;hmd.  15iit,  in  1.S04,  they  were  discovered  and  restored  to 
liyht. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  say  tliat  the  legend  must  be  read  with  a  view  to 
its  allegorical  interpretation.  Horn  in  the  time  of  early  Christian  liter- 
ature,   when    every  page  and   text  of   Holy   Scripture   was 

y     L     ^  J  I  Interpretation 

read  in  the  light  of  symbolism,  it  attained  its  full  growth  in  of  the  Legend, 
the  Middle  Ages,  which,  as  Warton  says,  were  those  "  of  vision  and 
mystery :  every  work  was  believed  to  contain  a  double  meaning. 
Nothing  escaped  this  eccentric  spirit  of  refinement  and  abstraction;  and 
together  with  the  Bible  .  .  .  the  whole  general  history  of  ancient 
times  was  explained  allegorically. ' '  ' 

Studying  the  story  in  the  right  spirit,  there  are  many  beautiful  teach- 
ings hidden  in  the  fantastic  language  of  the  legend.  For  instance,  Da\ad 
begirt  the  tree  with  thirty  rings  of  sapphire.  It  is  not  necessary  to  dwell 
on  the  number,  for  its  sj-mbolism  is  apparent,  but  note  that  in  the  lan- 
guage of  heraldry,  sapphire  represents  Azure,  which  symbolizes  justice, 
humility,  loyalty,  and  perseverance.  Colombiere  says,  "  Azure  repre- 
sents the  heaven,  which  is  the  highest  of  all  things  created,  the  tribunal 
of  God  and  the  everlasting  mansions  of  the  blessed."  In  sacred  archae- 
ology, blue  symbolizes  piety,  sincerity,  divine  contemjolation,  godliness 
etc.  Reading  the  story  thus,  understandingly,  we  can  perceive  why 
David  is  represented  as  thus  adorning  the  tree,  and  placing  it  in  the  part 
of  his  garden  consecrated  by  private  devotion  and  penitence  for  his 
grievous  sins. 

The  Cross  was  spoken  of  as  made  of  three  species  of  wood,  and  these 
were  varied  according  to  the  lesson  desired.  The  words  of  Isaiah  were 
sometimes  cited  by  the  Fathers.      "  The  glory  of  Lebanon  _.    _.       ,,    . 

.'  t-«        ^  The  Three  Vane- 

shall  come   unto  thee;  the  fir  tree,   the  pine  tree,   and  the       ties  of  wood. 

box  together,  to  beautif\- the  place  of  my  sanctuary;  and   I   will   make 

the  place  of  my  feet  glorious  "  (Isa.  Ix.,  13).      S.   Chr>'sostom  so  applies 

the  text.      In  the  Vulgate  the  words  are  cypress,  pine,  and  cedar.      Often 

the   transverse  is  spoken  of  as  made    of   palm,    for  the   Bridegroom   in 

Canticles  says,  "  I  will  go  up  to  the  palm  tree,  I  will  take  hold  of  the 

boughs  thereof"   (Cant,   vii.,   8),   alluding  to  the  stretching  out  of  our 

Lord's  hands  upon  the  Cross.      Hence  we  are  told  the  Cross  was  made 

'  \V.irlon,  Iiitroduition,  Diss.  Early  English  Poetry. 


98  History  of  the  Cross 

of  the  palm  of  victory,  the  cedar  of  incorruption,  and  the  olives  of  royal 
and  priestly  benediction/ 

But  in  later  legends  the  number  of  the  trees  is  increased.  The  simple 
symbolism  of  the  Trinity  gives  place  to  a  more  complex  idea,  and  yet 
one  concentrating  and  gathering  together  the  \'arious 
symbols  of  the  second  person  of  the  Trinity,  His  office  and 
His  Church.  Hence  the  Cross  is  said  to  have  been  composed  of  four 
kinds  of  wood.  Four  is  the  number  which  speaks  of  stability  and  the 
material  universe,  and  the  Church  is  made  up  from  the  elect  from  the 
four  quarters  of  the  earth,  for  Abraham  was  bidden,  "  Lift  up  now  thine 
eyes  .  .  .  northward,  and  southward,  and  eastward,  and  westward  " 
(Gen.  xiii.,  14).  "  Thus  was  the  throne  on  the  four  quarters  extended." 
The  four  quarters  were  watered  by  the  rivers  of  Paradise,  four  streams 
yet  proceeding  from  one  head.  The  altar  of  incense  was  ordained  to 
be  four-square,  with  its  four  horns  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  the  sacri- 
fice by  which  the  offering  was  rendered  acceptable.  The  sun  was  created 
on  the  fourth  day,  and  in  Revelation  it  is  stricken  out  under  the  fourth 
trumpet;  and  the  sun  is  a  well-known  symbol  of  the  Lord  himself  in  the 
Licarnation.'  The  symbolism  might  be  carried  out  further,  but  enough 
has  been  adduced  to  show  its  applicability,  and  that  the  coincidences  are 
not  merely  accidental. 

In  the  Lcgcnda  A/irra,'  we  read  that  the  upright  was  of  cedar,  the 
transverse  of  cypress,  the  title  of  olive,  and  the  suppcdancuiii,  or  foot- 
rest,  of  palm.      And  thus  we  would  venture  to   interpret  it. 

Interpretation  of  .  ,■       i  y—  r  i  ^  i      ^     ■        ^l 

Four  Pieces  The  main  support  ot  the  Cross  was  01  cedar,  that  is,  the 
of  Wood.  altar  upon  which  the  sacrifice  was  offered  was  of  the  wood 

consecrated,  not  only  by  being  employed   in  Solomon's  temple,  but  by 

'  Nicquetus quotes  several  aiilliors  in  favor  of  Ihe  supposition  tliat  the  Cross  was  maile  of  only 
three  kinds  of  wood,  viz.,  cypress,  pine,  and  cedar.  Hist,  de  Tituli  S.  Cruces,  lib.  i.,  cap.  3.  A 
gU)ss  on  S.  Clement  places  cedar  in  the  root,  palm  in  the  upright,  and  cypress  in  the  transverse  ; 
an  ancient  hymn  locates  cedar  in  the  foot,  cypress  in  the  upright,  palm  sustains  the  hands,  while 
the  olive  "  rejoices"  in  the  title.  Gretser,  De  Cruce,  lib.  i.,  cap.  5.  The  Venerable  Bede  says 
the  Cross  was  made  of  cypress,  cedar,  pine,  and  box,  "  But  the  box  was  not  in  the  Cross  unless  in 
the  title."  The  upright  was  of  cypress  as  far  as  the  transverse,  which  was  of  cedar  and  the  top 
of  pine.     Bede  in  Collect. 

*  The  four  living  creatures  which  stood  round  the  throne  will  occur  to  every  one.  This 
term,  living  creature,  is  sometimes  of  good  (yc^ov)  and  sometimes  of  evil  (Zi/ptov)  hence,  as 
Williams  says,  "  as  four  is  of  evil  and  also  of  good,  it  may  be  of  the  animal  nature  of  man  sancti- 
fied in  the  New  Man."  Isaac  Williams  on  the  Apocalypst-,  ]i)i.  6S,  70.  I'"or  a  fuller  development 
of  the  symbolism  of  this  number  see  also  Williams,  pp.  84,  123,  149,  16S,  271. 

*  Legenda  A  urea,  Ve  Inventiotte  S.  Criicis. 


Legends  of  the  Cross  99 

having  been  previously  appointed  jjy  Moses  as  one  of  the  symboHcal  in- 
gredients in  tile  offering  for  leprosy  and  deiilement  conse<iiient  upon 
contact  with  death.'  The  cypress  sustaining  the  outstretched  arms,  the 
tree  of  mourning,  yet  ever  green,  as  was  the  love  everlasting,  which, 
while  it  wept  over  sinners,  extended  its  arms  to  embrace  the  whole  world 
in  its  sacrifice.  The  olive,  on  which  was  the  title,  the  universal  pledge 
of  peace,  proclaimed  that  the  Prince  of  Peace  died  to  restore  peace  be- 
tween God  and  man.  The  palm,  the  crown  of  earthly  glory  and  symbol 
of  martyrdom,  is  trampled  under  foot. 

It  was  an  early  tradition  that  Christ  was  crucified  in  the  same  place 
where  Adam  was  buried.  S.  Chrysostom  alludes  to  it.  "  Some  say  that 
Adam  died  there,  and  there  lieth,  and  that  Jesus,  in  that  ThePiaceof 
place    where    death    had    reigned,    there    also    set    up    the     nu^'^''.'^^''"t 

^  »  r  Christ  s  Death 

trophy.      For  He  went  forth  bearing  the  Cross  as  a  trophy  "'^  Same, 

over  the  tyranny  of  death,  and  as  conquerors  do,  so  bare  He  upon  his 
shoulders  the  symbol  of  victory.""  Even  locally,  thus  the  words  are 
reconciled  "  As  in  Adam  all  die,  even  so  in  Christ  shall  all  be  made 
alive  "    (i    Cor.    xv.,    22).     "  An    apt   connection,"    saith    S.    Jerome,. 

smooth  to  the   ear,   but  not  true."     Another  text  was  also  adopted. 

Awake  thou  that  sleepest  and  arise  from  the  dead,  and  Christ  shall 
give  thee  light."  In  early  art  Adam  is  frequently  represented  as  rising 
at  the  very  foot  of  the  Cross,  holding  a  chalice  to  catch  the  precious 
blood,  which,  having  fallen  upon  his  grave,  had  recalled  him  to  life.' 
Sometimes  the  story  is  varied,  and  we  are  told  that  in  one  and  the  same 
place  where  the  sacrifice  was  offered   for  that  sin  which  "  the  blood  of 

'  Leprosy  was  in  a  certain  sense  the  sacrament  of  deatli,  "  The  oiitwanl  and  visible  sign  "  of 
an  inward  corruption  and  sin  which  none  but  priests  as  vicegerents  of  God  could  remove.  Lev. 
xiii.  Hence  our  blessed  Saviour  appealed  to  his  curing  that  disease  as  proof  of  His  Divinity. 
S.  iVIatt.  xi.,  5. 

^  S.  Chrysostom  on  S.  J<ihn  ;  Houi.  85,  p.  756.  Oxf.  Trans,  This  belief  was  comnum  in  the 
early  Church.  Origen  speaks  of  it  as  well  known  in  his  time.  Tract,  xxxv.  in  Malt.  ;  also  S. 
Ambrose,  Epis.,  Ixxi.  ;  S.  Athanasius,  Ser.  de  Passione  Opera,  torn,  ii.,  p.  go,  Benedict  ed.  S. 
Augustine  writes,  "  The  ancients  hold  that  because  Adam  was  ilie  first  man,  and  was  buried 
there,  it  was  called  Calvary,  because  it  holds  the  head  of  the  human  race."  De  Gvitate  Dei,  cap. 
32.  S.  Jerome  adds  Isaac  to  the  list  of  those  sleeping  there.  Turn,  i.,  p.  (>37,  Paris  ed,,  161S. 
Molano,  Hist,  Imng.  Sacra.,  lib.  iv.,  cap.  ir.  S.  Basil  says.  "Probably  Noah  was  nut  ignor- 
ant of  the  sepulchre  of  our  forefather  and  that  of  the  first  born  of  all  mortals,  and  in  that  place. 
Calvary,  the  Lord  suffered,  the  origin  of  death  there  being  destroyed."  Isa.  cap.  5.  It  n-as 
also  held  by  some,  S.  Jerome  says,  that  Jerusalem  was  the  centre,  or,  as  it  was  frequently  ex- 
pressed, the  navel  of  the  earth.  Gretser,  lib.  i.,  cap  17.  Tertullian  and  S.  Cyril  are  more 
minute,  and  say  that  Calvary  was  the  centre.  Tertul.,  Contra.  Mar.,  lib.  ii.  ;  S.  Cyril  Collect. 
Lect,  xiii.  ^  History  of  our  Lord,  vol.  ii.,  p.  207. 


loo  History  of  the  Cross 

bulls  and  goats  could  not  take  away,"  there  was  the  offering  of  Cain  and 
Abel,  the  sacrifice  of  Noah  when  he  came  out  of  the  ark,  there  also  Abra- 
ham offered  Isaac,  there  was  the  threshing  floor  of  Araunah  which  David 
bought  to  sacrifice  therein  when  the  plague,  \\hich  his  pride  had  brought 
upon  Israel,  had  been  stayed.  In  the  same  place,  also,  once  dwelt 
Melchizedek,  and  Solomon  built  his  temple.' 

Donne,  in  his  Hymn  to  God  uiy  God  in  my  sickness,  has  thus  beauti- 
fully handed  down  to  us  an  old-time  tradition : 

"  We  think  that  Faradisc  and  Cak'arii\ 

C/irisi's  Cross  and  Adam's  tree  stood  in  one  ]ilace  ; 
Look  Lord,  and  find  both  Adams  met  in  me  ; 
As  \\'\Q  first  Adam's  sweat  surrounds  my  face. 
May  the  last  Adam's  blood  my  soul  embrace." 

As  the  tree  of  the  Ci'oss  was  planted  in  the  terrestrial  paradise,  so  it 

was  believed  that  it  would  be  transferred  to  the  celestial,  to  reappear  in 

heaven  at  the  end  of  time  borne  in  the  arms  of  Christ,  or  of  his  angels, 

when    the    Lord    descends    to   judge  the  world   at  the  last  day."     Yet 

the  sign    is   already   known  there,  according  to  an  apocry- 

The  Appearance 

of  the  Penitent     phal    gospcl    wliicli    rcUites    that    while    Enoch    and    Elias 

Thief  in  Hades.  .  .  ,      •     .         i  t      i  i_ 

were  communing  respectmg  the  descent  mto  Hades  by 
the  Saviour,  "  The  penitent  thief  entered  Paradise  bearing  upon  his 
shoulder  a  cross  as  a  token  given  by  his  Redeemer  to  attest,  to  the 
guardian  angel  of  the  gates,  his  right  to  admission."'  Perhaps  this 
legend  was  in  the  mind  of  quaint  old  Ouarles.  and  found  utterance  in 
his  expressive  words,  "  The  Cross  of  Christ  is  the  key  of  Paradise." 

But  the  legends  clustering  around  the  Cross  are  not  always  fraught 
J   <-.u        only  with   anguish;   there   are   some  simple    and   beautiful 

Legend  of  the  -'  &  ^  i 

Redbreast.  stories  intertwinctl  with  the  hearth-lore  of  many  nations. 

For  instance,  that  of  the  robin-redbreast. 

"  Bearing  His  cross,  while  Christ  passed  by  forlorn, 
His  Godlike  forehead  by  the  mock  crown  torn, 
A  little  bird  took  from  that  crown  one  thorn 
To  soothe  the  dear  Redeemer's  throhbinn  head. 

'  Adam,  Happiness  of  tlic  Ctntrc/i,  p.  32.  ''   Didron,   Clirist.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  369. 

^  (iospel  of  Nicodemus,  chap.  xx.  Some  of  the  Fathers  allude  to  the  belief  that  the  penitent 
thief  was  admitted  into  Paradise,  as  S.  Chrysostom  says,  "  before  Abraham,  before  the  whole 
human  race."  De  Criice  el  Latr.,  ii.,  §2.  S.  Cyril  also  says,  "  The  faithful  .\braham  had  not 
yet  entered;  but  the  robber  enters!  Moses  and  the  I'ropliets  had  not  yet  entered,  and  the 
lawless  robber  enters."     CaUc.  Led.  xiii.,  §  31. 


Legends  of  the  Cross  loi 

That  Ijird  did  what  she  could  ;   His  blood,  't  is  said, 
Down-dropping,  dyed  her  tender  bosom  red. 
Since  then  no  wanton  boy  disturbs  her  nest  ; 
Weasel,  nor  \\  ild  cat,  will  her  young  molest. 
All  sacred  deem  that  bird  of  ruddy  breast.' 

Whitticr  has  embalmed  in  one  of  liis  exquisite  poems  an  old  Swedish 
tradition  that  the  robin-redbreast  brings  daily  a  drop  of  water  to  cool 
the  tongues  of  those  parched  with  thirst  in  Hell.  His  red  breast  is  the 
effect  of  the  scorching  fires  that  the  bird  braves  in  his  act  of  mercy. 

Of  the  cross-bill  we  are  told,  he  tried  to  minister  to  his  Maker  in  his 
agony.      Longfellow  gives  us  a  translation  from  the  German       ,         .    ,., 

o        -'  t"  o  Legend  of  the 

of  Julius  Mosen.     The  Lord  and  Creator  of  the  universe  Cross-biu. 

being  forsaken  of  all  his  creatures  save  tliis  little  bird,  who,  striving  at 
the  nail, 

"  Stained  with  blood,  and  never  tiring 
With  its  beak  it  doth  not  cease. 
From  the  Cross  't  would  free  the  Saviour  ; 
Its  Creator's  Son  release. 

"  And  the  Saviour  speaks  in  mildness  ; 
'  Blest  be  thou  of  all  the  good  ! 
Bear  as  token  of  this  moment, 

Marks  of  blood  and  holy  rood  ! '  " 

Mrs.  Hemans  reminds  us  of  the  arum, 

"  Beneath  the  cross  it  grew  ; 
And  in  the  vase-like  hollow  of  its  leaf, 
Catching  from  that  dread  shower  of  agony 
A  few  mysterious  dro]is,  transmitted  thus 
Unto  the  groves  and  hills,  their  healing  stains  : 
A  heritage  for  storm  or  vernal  wind 
Never  to  waft  away  !  " 

JJ'Dixf  J  J 'a/A: 

The  granadilla,  or  passion-flower,  seemed  such  a  miracle  of  nature, 
when  descriptions  and  drawings  of  it  were  first  received  in  Spain  and 
Italy,  that  Bosio  hesitated  about  taxing  the  credulity  of  his  .j.^^  Passion- 
readers,  and  fortified  his  description  by  reference  to  "  per-  Flower, 
sons  of  quality  and -gravity  "  who  had  travelled  in  the  New  World.  The 
pious  author  of  the  Triitinph  of  the  C>-oss  avows  his  conviction,  "  that  it 

'  Author  unknown,  A'oles  and  Qin-ries.  4th  ser.,  vol.  iv.,  p.  390. 


I02 


History  ox'"  the  Cross 


seemed  as  if  the  great  Creator  of  the  Universe  had  been  pleased  to  im- 
print on  it  the  evident  image  and  clear  signification  of  the  instrument  of 
the  Passion  of  his  only  begotten  Son  in  order  that  in  after  times  they 
might  aid  in  the  con\-crsion  of  the  idolatrous  people."     His  description 


rassion   Flower, 
From  Bosio's  La  Trionfante  c  Gloriosa  Croce. 

of  the  flower  is  such  as  miglit  be  expected  from  his  simple  yet  fervid 
devotion.  The  upper  petals  are  ta^viiy  in  Peru,  but  white,  tinted  with 
rose  color,  in  New  S[)ain.  The  fringe  of  filaments  above,  resembling  the 
scourge  with  which  our  Lord  was  beaten,  are  the  color  of  blood.      In  the 


Legends  of  the  Cross  103 

middle  of  the  flower  rises  a  stem,  like  the  pillar  to  which  Jesus  was 
bound;  abo\'e  this  are  three  triangular  little  branches  like  the  nails,  sur- 
mountini^  is  the  crown  of  thorns  surrounded  b_\-  a  \-eil  of  threads  se\'enty- 
two  in  number,  correspondint;-  to  the  traditionary  nundjer  of  thorns  in 
our  Saviour's  crown,  colored  like  a  peacock-feather.  In  the  centre  and 
surroundint^  the  column  are  leaves  like  a  lily,  each  spotted  with  five  drops 
of  deep  blood  color  "  which  resemble  the  five  wounds  Christ  received  on 
the  Cross,"  hence  the  Spaniards  call  it  the  flower  of  the  five  wounds  ( Jlor 
dc  las  cinco  Hugos).  The  leaves  of  the  plant  resemble  the  head  of  the 
lance  with  which  the  side  of  Jesus  was  pierced.  If  any  part  of  the  flower 
or  vine  is  broken,  blood-like  sap  drops  from  it.  The  flower  is  generally 
partly  closed,  as  if  carefully  guarding  its  wonderful  mysteries;  Bosio, 
therefore,  gives  a  representation  of  it  ojjen,  that  the  pious  reader  may 
contemplate  it  with  spiritual  profit,  and  he  devoutly  suggests  that  it 
would  seem  that  Infinite  Wisdom  had  concealed  these  mysteries  of  the 
Cross  and  Passion  until  the  time  the  Most  High  had  preordained  to  fulfil 
S.  Paul's  words:  "  The  m\'ster_\^  \\hich  hath  been  hid  from  ages  and 
from  generations,  but  now  is  made  manifest  to  his  saints:  To  whom  God 
would  make  known  what  is  the  riches  of  the  glory  of  this  mystery  among 
the  Gentiles  "  (Col.  i.,  26,  zj). 

But  time  and  space  would  fail  us  to  gather  together  a  tithe  of  the 
holy  memories  which  have  been  embodied  in  thought  and  word  by  the 
devout  worshippers  of  the  Cross.  We  cannot  do  better  than  end  this 
part  of  our  subject  with  the  following  words  from  Mrs.  Hemans's  Wood 
Walk  : 

"  Many  a  sign 
Of  the  great  sacrifice  which  won  us  Heaven 
The  woodman  and  the  mountaineer  can  trace 
On  rock,  on  herb,  and  flower.     And  be  it  so  ! 
Tluy  do  not  wisely  that,  with  hurried  hand. 
Would  pluck  these  salutary  fancies  forth 
From  the  strong  soil  within  the  peasant's  breast, 
And  scatter  them — far,  far  too  fast  I — away 
As  worthless  weeds.     Oh  !  little  do  we  know 
W/ien  they  have  soothed,  when  saved  !  " 

Section  3.    The  Miraculous  Appearances  of  the  Cross.— It  was 

on  the  26th  of  October,  according  to  Gibbon,  the  7th  of  November,  ac- 
cording to  other  historians,  A.D.  312,  the  eve  of  the  battle  between  Max- 


104 


History  of  the  Cross 


entius  and  Constantine,  about  midday,  some  say  ;  when  tlie  sun  began 

to  decline  towards  its  setting,  say  others;  when  to  the  Roman  Emperor 

and  his  armv  there  appeared  in  the  heavens  a  cross  of  hght 

Appearance  of 

the  Cross  to         above  that  of  the  sun,  with  the  inscription,   in  a  constel- 

Constantine. 

lation  of  stars,  according  to  some  authorities,  EN  T< lITfl 
NIKA,'  "  In  this  Conquer."  Amazed,  the  pagan  augurs  presaged  tliat 
the  sign  of  the  Cross,  which  they  "  beHeved  to  be  deadly,  not  joyful,  to 

men,"  portend- 
ed the  destruc- 
tion of  the  whole 
army/  Eusebi- 
us  tells  us  that 
at  sight  of  this 
apparition,  Con- 
st an  tine,  who 
was    wavering 


IN  HOC  VlNGES. 


H 


SINFONIA    ^<i.>'     ET  FILIIS 
VIXIT  ANN.  XLVIII.  M.V.D.HII. 


From  Bosio's  La  Tiioiifantc  e  Gloriosa  Croce. 

between  paganism  and  Christianity,  was  in  doubt  as  to  what  it  portended, 
and  retired  to  rest,  anxious  and  thoughtful.  During  the  night  Christ  ap- 
His  Vision  peared  to  him,  together  with  the  sign  before  seen  in  the 

at  Night.  heavens,  and  bade  him  use  it  as  a  standard  for  protection 

aeainst  his  enemies.  As  soon  as  it  was  dav,  he  related  the  vision  to  his 
friends,  and  then  assembling  the  workers  of  gold  and  precious  stones  he 
ordered  them  to  imitate  with  their  materials  his  description. °  The  his- 
torian gives  a  minute  account  of  this  standard,  which  was  called  the  Labar- 
«w.  A  long  spear,  plated  with  gold,  with  a  transverse  bar,  formed  a  cross. 
From  the  bar  was  suspended  a  square  banner  of  purple,  interwoven  with 
^^^  gold  and    precious    stones.     Above  this   were  golden  por- 

Labarum.  traits   of    the    Empcror  and  his  sons,   and   the   whole   was 

surmounted  by  a  golden  crown,  brilliant  with  gems,  within  which  was 
placed  the  Greek  letter  X,  intersected  b_\-  the  letter  V.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  preserved  in  the  palace  at  Constantinople  until  the  ninth  century.* 

'  Nicephor»s  and  Zonaras  say  that  the  inscription  was  in  Latin,  IN  HOC  VINCE.  Euse- 
bius  implies  it  was  in  Greek.  The  commander  Leo  affirmed  the  same.  Brentius  thinks  the 
appearance  was  that  of  the  monogram  -^.  Oretser,  De  Cruce,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  37  :  see  also  Callt. 
Orth.,  ii.,  19,  p.  if>8,  and  Mosheim,  ii.,  iv.,  i,  note  2g,  30.  Neander  says,  "Undoubtedly 
in  the  native  language  of  the  Roman  soldiers:  ' /«  Hoc  Vincc' "  Eccles.  Hist.,  vol.  ii. 
p.   7,   note.  '  Baronius,  Annals.,  312  ;  Gretser,  De  Cruce,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  36. 

'  Eusebius,  Life  0/  Constantine,  book  i.,  c.  22-31. 

*  Ilemans,  .-Uicieiit  Christiatiilv  and  Sacred  Art,  \t.  go. 


Legends  of  the  Cross 


105 


Such  a  maLinificcnt  standard  would  sccin  more  fitting  for  a  procession 
than  for  a  battle-field.  To  guard  it,  therefore,  fifty  chosen  men  (called 
Draconarii,  from  one  of  the  pagan  Ivoman  standards)  were  appointed, 
who  carried  it  by  turns,  and  when  any  part  of  the  army  was  hard  pressed 
in  battle,  thither  it  was  borne,  and  by  the  confidence  it  inspired,  the 
army  was  invincible. 
And,  according  to  the 
legend,  the  bearers 
never  were  wounded, 
for  the  missiles  aimed 
at  them  struck  the  staff. 
The  device  of  the  mono- 
gram was  also  engraved 
by  Constantine  upon  his 
shield  and  coins. 

The  account  of  the 
vision  was  given  by  the 
Emperor    to    „   . 

1  History  of 

EusebiuS,    and       the  story. 

solemnly  confirmed  with 
an  oath.  For  thirteen 
hundred  years  no  one 
questioned  the  story. 
Godefroi,    a    French 

writer  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  the  first  who  impugned  the  vera- 
city of  the  historian,  or  of  Constantine;  and,  of  course,  tlie  infidel  Gibbon 
expresses  his  opinion  that  Protestant  and  philosophic  readers  of  the 
present  age  will  incline  to  believe  "  that,  in  the  account  of  his  own  con- 
version, Constantine  attested  a  wilful  falsehood,  by  a  solemn  and  delib- 
erate perjury."'  But  Constantine  declared  that  the  ivliolc  artny 
witnessed  the  miracle.  He  was  in  his  thirty-eighth  year  when  it  hap- 
pened, and  there  must  have  been  many  in  that  army  younger  than 
himself,  and  who  were  alive'  when  Eusebius  published  his  account,  and 
yet  there  is  no  evidence  of  its  having  been  contradicted.      Nor  do  we 

'  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  chap.  xx. 

^  Tbe  Acts  of  Arteniius  are  extant.  He  was  in  Constantine's  army  and  was  afterwards 
deprived  of  his  commission,  on  account  of  his  Christian  faith,  by  Julian  the  .Apostate.  Arteniius 
testifies  that  he  saw  the  sign  and  read  the  letters,  and  that  many  witnesses  could  be  produced 


The  Labarum. 
From  Bosio's  La  Trion/ante  e  Gloriosa  Croce. 


io6  History  of  the  Cross 

read  of  any  disturbance  when  the  Labariiiii  was  presented  to  the  army  as 

their    standard.     Would    the    rugged    Roman    soldiers    have    accepted, 

without    the    most    weighty    reason,    the    change    of    their 

The  Change  of  ° 

the  Roman  Eagle  belo\-ed    Eagles,    wliich    for  so    many  centuries  had   flown 

for  the  Cross.  ,       ,  i  •  r  •  i  i  i    •  i 

before  tlicm  to  victory,  for  an  image  hated  and  Accursed, 
and  only  telling  of  shame  and  ignominy  ?  The  army  at  that  time  was, 
doubtless,  mainly  composed  of  heathen,  and  it  ruled  Rome.  It  was  the 
army  which  had  called  Constantine  from  Britain  to  Rome,  and  placed 
him  over  four  competitors,  as  the  successful  candidate  for  the  imperial 
purple.  Would  Constantine  have  dared  to  risk  his  popularity  and 
power  without  sufficient  cause  ?  In  modern  times,  could  Washington 
have  led  the  American  troops  from  Valley  Forge  to  Yorktown  under 
the  standard  of  a  gallows?  or  Napoleon  have  returned  from  Elba  to 
Paris  carrying  the  insignia  of  a  guillotine  ?  Yet  these  symbols  would 
not  have  been  less  abhorrent  to  Americans,  or  to  Frenchmen,  than  was 
the  cross  to  Romans.' 

There  is  also  pagan  testimony  as  to  the  miracle.  In  a  panegyric  de- 
livered immediately  after  the  victory,  the  heathen  orator  asks,  "  What 
god,  what  divine  presence  encouraged  thee,  that  when  nearly  all  thy 
companions  in  arms  and  commanders  not  only  had  secret  misgivings, 
but  had  open  fears  of  tlic  omen,  yet  against  the  warnings  of  the  diviners, 
thou  didst  thyself  perceive  that  the  time  of  delivering  the  city  was 
come  '>  "  "  Hence  we  know  that  something  miraculous  must  have 
happened.  No  other  miracle  save  that  of  the  Cross  has  ever  been  sug- 
gested. 

About  the  year  A.D.  314  or  315,  Constantine  erected  a  triumphal 
arch  at  Rome,  with  an  inscription  testifying  that  he  had  gained  the 
victory,  "  instinct u  diviiiitatis.  mentis  magnitudine."  Also,  as  soon  as 
he  entered  Rome  he  caused  to  be  made  a  statue  of  himself  holding  a 
cross  in  his  hand,  and  witli  an  inscription  to  the  effect  that  "  with  the 
life-giving  sign  "  he  had  ilcli\-ercd  the  city  from  the  "  dominion  of  a 
tyrant." 

from  llie  army.  \'ila  Acta.  S.  Arleinii  aputl  stir,  torn,  v.,  cited  by  Gretser,  De  Crtice,  lib.  ii., 
cap.  36.  liurtoi).  however,  thinks  th.nt  tlie  anthenticity  of  this  document  may  be  doulited. 
Eccles.  Hist.,  chap,  xxx.,  p.  644,  nine. 

'  Cicero  says,  "  That  the  very  name  of  the  cross  was  not  only  far  removed  from  the  body  of 
a  Roman  citizen,  but  even  from  his  thoughts,  eyes,  and  ears  ...  as  an  indignity  to  a 
Roman  and  a  freeman." — Cicero  pro  Ral/ir.,  cited  by  Gretser,  Dc  Cruce,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  36. 

•  Eusebius,  Ecclcs.  Hist.,  book  ix.,  chap.  9. 


Legends  of  the  Cross 


107 


Medal  of  Constantinc.      From  Bosio'b  La  Trioiifanlc  Croce. 


Bosio  also  describes  and  tjives  a  represeiilation  of  a  medal.  The 
obverse  bears  the  head  of  Constantius,  the  son  of  Constantiiie,  the  re- 
verse, a  soldier 
holding  a  labar- 
um,  behind  him 
is  a  figure  of  Vic- 
tory crowning 
him  with  laurel, 
and  the  inscrip- 
tion is  Hoc  SlG- 

NO  Victor  Eris. 
Thus  we  have  the 
testimony  of  history, 
statues,  and  medals,  which  are  generally  considered  tolerable  proof.' 
It  has  been  supposed  by  some  that  the  sentence  was  not  actually 
formed  in  the  sky,  but  only  some  emblem,  such  as  a  crown  signifying 
victory,  or  that   only  the  monogram  -P  appeared,  and  Lac- 

■'  ■'  t-,  ,T^       1  I  -^gj.  it  tlie  Cross 

tantius  is  quoted  as  testifying  to  the  latter.      Before  a.  D.  or  the  Monogram 

in  the  Vision  ? 

314  he  published  \\\?,  Dc  JSIortibus  Pi-rs.ccutoniiii.  in  which  he 
says:  "  Constantine  was  admonished  in  sleep  to  mark  the  heavenly  sign 

of    God    on    the 
'^^'*'^^^^  shields,     and    so 

to  engage  the 
enemy.  He  did 
as  he  was  bidden 
and  marks  the 
name  of  Christ  on 
the  shields  by  the 
letter  X  drawn 
across  them  with 
the  top  circum- 
flexed.  Armed  with  this  sign,  his  troops  take  up  arms,"  etc."  Here  is 
no  mention,  in  so  many  words,  of  a  cross,  but  it  may  be  asked,  does  Lac- 
tantius  refer  only  to  the  monogram  when  he  speaks  of  a  "  Iicavcnly  sign  "  ? 
The  monogram  was  already  known  to  the  heathen.      It  appears,  for  ex- 

'  For  the  contrary  see  Lardner,  Credihility  of  llic  Gospel,  cliaji.  Ixxx.  ;   Xeander,  vol.  ii.,  p. 
II  ;  iMosheim  (Murdock's  ed.),  ii.,  iv.,  i,  notes  ;  see  also  in  favor,  Dr.  Good's  Sliidu-s  of  Xatui-e. 
°  Lactantius,  Di  Mart.  Fersecuioi-um,  p.  44. 


Medal  of  Constantius.     From  Bosio's  La  I'lioiifaiilc  Croce. 


io8 


History  of  the  Cross 


Coin  of  Ptolemy.      From  Gretser's  De  Sancta  Cruce. 


ample,  on  a  coin  of  one  of  the  Ptolemies,  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  and 
has  been  supposed  to  be  a  contraction  for  Xptjaros,  signifying  "  good, 
benign,  gracious."  '     At  all  events,  Lactantius,  in  common  with  others, 

testifies  that  some- 
thing wonderftd  had 
occurred.  It  matters 
little  in  what  way,  or 
by  what  symbol,  our 
Lord  did  address 
Constantine ;  that  he 
should  do  so  intel- 
ligibly is  enough,  and 
that  the  Emperor  un- 
derstood the  sign  is  plain,  not  only  because  of  his  declaring  himself  from 
that  time  forth  on  the  side  of  Christianity,  but  also  because  of  his  erect- 
ing monuments  to  that  fact,  one  of  which  is  standing  to  this  day. 

We  would  call  attention  to  another  point.  When  God  would  over- 
throw the  Babylonish  empire,  the  symbol  of  paganism,  and  reassert  the 
Condemnation  of  legitiniacy  of  his  own  people,  he  wrote  upon  the  wall  of 
Beishazzar  Belsliazzar's  palacc.      When  God  would  call  all  men,  pasjan 

Written  on  a  a  '    I      Jd 

Perishable  Wall,  j^^^  ^^.^.[1  ^^^  thosc  of  Promise,  unto  redemption,  he  inscribed, 
not  the  sentence  of  condemnation  upon  a  material  wall  which  shall 
perish,  but  the  words  of  salvation  upon  that  firmament  into  which  the 
Saviour  had  ascended.  If  the  first  story  be  true,  and  no  Christian 
doubts  it,  may  not  the  last  be  also  ? '' 

Although  the  appearance  of  the  Cross  to  Constantine  is  perhaps  the 
only  one  generally  considered  as  miraculous,  there  have  been  many  others 
recorded  in  history  and  tradition,  which  may  have  been  caused  by 
natural  means,  yet,  at  the  time  of  their  appearance,  were  considered 
supernatural. 

'  Ciretser,  De  Crttce,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  38.  It  might  be  supposed  that  the  Christians  adopted 
this  monogram  only  with  its  pagan  signification,  but  Tertulli.iii  bids  them  remember  that  they 
are  named  not  from  XfM/tiroi,  "  kindness,"  but  from  X/jioroi  "anointed."  Afid.  I.,  sec.  3. 
I'erhaps  the  earliest  use  of  the  monogram,  as  used  by  Chrisli.ins,  that  is  extant,  is  in  the  epitaphs 
of  Alexander  and  Marius,  in  the  Cataccnnljs.  They  were  martyrs  during  llie  time  of  Adrian  and 
of  Antonine  in  the  early  part  of  the  second  century. 

'  The  contrast  might  be  carried  out.  "A/eiie,  Mene,  Tckcl  Upharsin,"  was  inscribed  ujiun  a 
wall,  symbolical  of  that  "  wall  "  between  the  Jew  and  the  Gentile,  which,  the  apostle  says,  sliall 
be  broken  down.  " /«  this  Conquer"  was  written  beneath  the  floor  of  "the  house  of  many 
mansions." 


Legends  of  the  Cross  109 

S.  Cyril  gives  one  instance.  "  DurinL;'  the  huly  day-s  of  Pentecost,  in 
tlie  tliird  hour  of  the  day  in  the  second  year  of  the  episcopate  (Ma}'  7, 
351),  there  appeared  a  luminous  cross  of  enormous  dimensions  over  lioly 
Golgotha,  extending  even  to  the  Mount  of  Olives;  it  was  extremely 
brilliant,  surpassing  the  light  cif  the  sun;  and  was  seen  not  only  by  one 
or  two  individuals,  but  by  the  whole  city.  It  was  a  passing  i)henonienon, 
but  continued  visible  for  several  hours.  The  effect  on  the  believers  was 
to  inspire  them  with  fear  mingled  with  joy;  the  churches  were  thronged, 
not  only  by  Christian  worshippers,  but  by  Jewish  and  heathen  candidates 
for  the  sacrament  of  initiation,  convinced  of  the  truth  of  the  Church's 
faith  by  this  symbol  of  their  salvation  in  the  heavens."  ' 

In  the  Auglo-Sdxoii  Cliroiiiclc  for  the  )-ear  JJI  it  is  recorded,  "  In  this 
year  a  fiery  crucifix  appeared  in  the  heavens  after  sunset,"  in 773- 

and  again  in  806,  "  This  year,  the  second  before  the  nones  of  June,  a 
cross  appeared  in  the  moon."  '' 

During  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  of  England, on  the  vigil  of  S.  Laur- 
ence, in  the  village  of  Dunstable,  about  the  ninth  hour  of  ,   .„•       . 

^  In  Time  of 

the  day,  the  heavens  opened  and  a  cross  of  wonderful  mag-  Henry  11. 

nitude  appeared,  upon  which  our  Lord  was  affixed,  and  the  blood  was 
seen  flowing  from  the  wounds  in  his  hands,  feet,  and  side.^ 

Upon  the  death  of  Baldwin,  King  of  Jerusalem,  A.U.  i  144,  \-ery  early 
upon  the  Festival  of  the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord,  the  heavens  near  the 
meridian  were  opened,  and  the  moon,  which  was  brilliantly  At  Jerusalem, 
shining,  was  "  wiped  out  "  by  the  efTulgence  of  light,  and  a  cross  as  of 
gold  and  gems  appeared.' 

On  the  day  of  the  coronation  of  Rudolph  of  Ilapsburg,  A.D.  1264,  a 
cross  appeared  in  the  sky.""  ini264. 

An  interesting  legend  is  interwoven  with  the  early  history  of  Portu- 
gal. Alphonsus,  King  of  Lusitania,  was  about  to  meet  in  the  battle  of 
Ourique,  with  a  small  force,  the  united  armies  of  five  in  Portugal, 
kings.  He  had  pitched  his  tent  near  the  hut  of  a  hermit.  Vast 
numbers  of  Moors  surrounded  the  army,  and  "  devoured  hope."  The 
Christian  chiefs,  hoping  against  hope,  endeavored  to  animate  their 
soldiers  for  the  morrow,  which  was  the  Festival  of  S.  James,  the  patron 

'  S.  Cyril,  Opera,  p.  247,  Paris  ed.,  id4o.  ^  Gretser,  De  Criice,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  7. 

'  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  pp.  339,  345,  Holm's  ed.  ■*  Ilnd. 

'  Ibid.  The  pious  and  credulous  author  gives  many  other  instances,  interesting,  but  too 
numerous  to  quote. 


no  History  of  the  Cross 

saint  of  Spain.  At  ev^cning  the  anchorite  visited  Alphonsus,  and  bade 
him  watch  for  the  toUing  of  the  bell  at  night,  for  then  Clirist  would  ap- 
pear to  him.  Joyfi.ll,  yet  anxious,  Alphonsus  kept  the  vigil.  At  dawn 
the  wished-for  sound  rang  through  the  air,  and  the  vision  of  the  crucified 
Lord  appeared.  Excited  beyond  the  bounds  of  reason,  Alphonsus  ex- 
claimed ;  "  Why,  O  Saviour  of  the  world,  dost  thou  appear  unto  me  who 
believe  in  thee,  and  worship  thee  most  fervently  I  To  these  infidels  who 
are  thy  enemies  and  mine,  and  are  ignorant  of  thy  divinity,  it  were 
better  to  appear,  that  they  may  know  the  mystery  of  thy  Cross,  and 
cease  to  be  insane."  Christ  commanded  the  army  to  be  set  in  array, 
and  at  a  given  signal  the  trumpets  to  sound  in  concert.  Miraculous 
effect  seemed  added  to  the  clangor.  To  the  Moors  it  seemed  as  if  the 
heavens  were  falling  and  the  earth  trembling.  A  bloody  battle  followed. 
One  hundred  and  sixty  thousand  Moslems  were  slain.  Three  days  after 
the  victory,  Alphonsus  was  engaged  in  distributing  the  spoils,  and  to 
each  soldier  was  given  a  white  shield,  on  \\hich,  in  the  language  of 
heraldry,  the  story  of  the  victory  was  told.  First,  because  Christ  had 
revealed  Himself  on  the  Cross,  there  was  a  blue  cross  on  a  silver  shield; 
then,  because  five  kings  were  conquered,  five  shields  were  inlaid  upon 
the  cross,  upon  every  one  of  \\hich  were  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  because 
the  Saviour  was  sold  for  so  many.  In  after  years  this  was  changed  for 
convenience;  two  decussated  crosses  of  five  coins  placed  in  the  middle 
and  one  at  the  top,  so  that  the  thirty  pieces  might  be  computed.' 

In  1 301,  a  fiery  cross  appeared  over  the  Palazzo  Publico  in  Florence 
before  the  city  fell  by  the  treachery  of  Charles  de  \'aIois,  "  so  that  all 
At  Florence.  those  who  saw  it,  as  I  myself  saw  it  clearly,"  says  Dino 
Compagni,  "  saw  that  God  was  grievously  angry  with  the  city."  " 

Evelyn  gives  an  account  of  a  somewhat  similar  prodigy,  in  his  diary 

for  March  10,   1643.      Being   at    Hatingfordberry,  he    beheld  "  a  shining 

cloud    in    the   air,    in   shape   resembling  a  swortl,   the  point 

In  England 

Appearance  of     reaching  to  the  north;  it  was  as  bright  as  the  moon,  the 

a  Sword.  r      i  i         ,      •  t      i  i 

rest  of  the  sky  being  very  serene.  It  began  about  eleven 
at  night,  and  vanished  not  till  about  one,  being  seen  by  all  the  South  of 
England."  '  It  will  occur  to  the  reader's  memory  that  a  sword  was  seen 
suspended  over  Jerusalem  before  its  destruction. 

'  Gretser,  De  Crtice,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  8  ;  MuUer,  Lectures  on  Language,  2(1  series,  p.  577. 
'  Dino  Canipagni,  book  ii.,  p.  42,  quoted  by  Trollope,  Hist  of  Florence,  vol.  i.,  p.  274. 
'  Notes  and  Queries,  April  18,  1851. 


Legends  of  the  Cross  1 1 1 

In  1838,  a  dark  cross  was  observed  fur  many  successive  niglits  in  the 
heavens  at  Jerusalem,  as  if  tliat  part  were  de\'oid  of  stars.  Still  later  we 
have  two  instances  of  this  phenomenon.  The  Reverend  At  Jerusalem. 
Alfred  Gatty,  of  Ecclesfield,  England,  published  an  account  of  an  ap- 
pearance in  the  clouds,  "  of  our  SavioLir  upon  the  Cross.  The  head 
was    concealed    in    light,    but   the  arms  were    outstretched,  in  England, 

and  the  body  was  quite  distinct."  '  The  other  story  is  in  Poland.  The 
police  of  Warsaw  reported  that  a  fiery  cross  was  seen  over  one  of  the 
houses  in  that  city,  and  a  crowd  was  collected,  which  was  dispersed  by 
the  ci\il  authority. 

The  writer  himself  was  witness  to  such  a  natural  arrangement  of  the 
clouds  in  the  heavens.  In  the  autumn  of  KS54,  while  sailing  ujjon  Lake 
Champlain,  he  saw,  about  sunset,  a  short  distance  above  the 

Cross  in  the 

sun,  two  delicate  white  clouds  upon  a  trapezoidal  opening  ciouds  over  Lake 

-  ••111  Champlain. 

of  the  sky.     The  sides  of  the  blue  opening  in  the  clouds 
and   that  of  the  cross   were   bent    in   the   very  position   which   a   banner 
would  assume.      As  the  rest  of  the  sky  was  overshadowed   with   dense 
black  clouds,  one  could  easily  imagine  that  in  an  earlier  age  this  appear- 
ance would  have  been  considered  miraculous.'' 

There  is  a  curious  instance  in  the  life  of  Colonel  James  Gardiner 
Avhich  would  be  unnoticed  as  a  mere  dream  or  idle  fantasy  but  for  the 
high  standing  of  the  Colonel  and  the  character  of  his  pious  biographer. 
Dr.  Doddridge,  on  whose  authority  this  account  is  gi\'en.  Colonel 
Gardiner  in  early  life  was  irreligious  and  profligate.  One  evening  while 
impatiently  waiting  for  the  hour  when  he  had  an  appointment  with  a 
lad)',  to  pass  away  the  time,  he  carelessly  took  up  a  book  entitled  TItc 
Christian  Soldier,  or  Heaven  Taken  by  Storm.  He  may  have  fallen  asleep 
while  reading,  but  he  always  asserted  that  lie  was  fully  awake,  and  firml)- 
believed  that  what  he  saw  was  not  a  vision  of  the  imagination,  but  a 
reality.  An  unusual  effulgence  of  light  falling  upon  the  book  that  he 
was  reading,  he  raised  his  eyes  to  see  if  an  accident  had  happened  to  the 
candle,  when  he  beheld,  suspended  in  the  air,  a  visible  representation  of 
our  Lord  upon  the  Cross  surrounded  with  glory,  and  either  heard  an 
audible  voice  or  was  impressed  as  if  a  voice  had  spoken,  saying  in  effect, 

'  London  Times,  May  23,  1S63. 

'  Two  others  witnessed  this  be.iutiful  phenomenon,  the  Rev.  James  R.  Davenport  of  New 
Vork,  and  Robert  Lowry  of  New  Jersey. 


112  History  ot  the  Cross 

"  O  sinner,  did  I  suffer  this  for  thee,  and  are  tliese  the  returns  ?  "     He 
sank  in  a  swoon,  to  recover,  a  sincere  and  lifelong  penitent.' 

Appearance  of  the  Cross,  the  "Sign  of  the  Sou  of  Man  "  at  the  Day 

of  Jndgment 

"  The  wood  of  the  Cross  was  born  with  the  world,  in  the  terrestrial 
paradise;  it  will  reappear  in  heaven  at  the  end  of  time,  borne  in  the  arms 
of  Christ  or  of  his  angels,  when  the  Lord  descends  to  judge  the  world  at 
the  last  day."  "  "And  if  the  sign  of  the  Cross  had  such  an  effect,  in  the 
first  ages  of  a  stronger  faith,  to  work  miracles,  overcoming  thereby  the 
powers  of  nature,  and  the  use  of  which  has  always  been  accompanied  in 
the  Church  with  the  giving  of  supernatural  grace,  as  in  baptism  and  the 
like,  we  may  well  suppose  that  this  sign  visibly  displayed  in  the  heavens 
should,  from  its  exceeding  virtue,  eclipse  the  sun  and  the  stars,  whether 
these  expressions  be  taken  literally  or  figurati\-ely. "  '  The  belief  of  the 
early  Church  in  the  appearance  of  the  Cross  as  the  sign  of  the  coming  of 
the  Son  of  Man  in  the  Day  of  Doom,  was  almost,  if  not  quite,  universal. 
The  Ethiopian  Church  embodied  it  in  her  creed.  "  What,  indeed, "asks 
a  modern  divine,  "  can  be  more  honorable  to  our  Lord  and 

March.  r--  r      w         r  TT-  -1  11 

Saviour,  or  more  full  of  terror  to  His  enemies,  than  that  the 
Cross  of  Christ,  which  they  accounted  foolishness,  and  more  than  so, 
esteemed  the  greatest  reproach  of  the  Christian  faith,  should  at  that  day 
be  made  the  herald  to  proclaim  His  coming,  and  to  call  all  nations  of 
the  world  before  Him  ?"  *  (I  Cor.  i.,  21-26;  Wisdom  v.,  i-".) 

"  The  salutary  Trophy  of  Jesus,"  saith  S.  Cyril.  "...     shall  ap- 
pear again   with   Jesus  from  heaven,   for   the   trophy  shall  precede  the 

King;  that  seeing  Him  iclioin  they  pierced,  and  by  the  Cross 

S.  Cyril. 

knowing  Him  who  was  dishonored,  the  Jews  may  repent 
and  mourn;  (but  t/iey  shall  iiionrn  tribe  bv  tribe  when  their  season  of  re- 
pentance shall  be  no  more);  ami  that  we  may  glory,  boasting  of  the 
Cross,  worshipping  the  Lord  who  was  sent  and  crucified  for  us,  and  wor- 
shipping also  God  His  Father  who  sent  Him.  with  the  Holy  Ghost.  To 
whom  be  glory  for  ever  and  ever.  Amen."  And  again  .S.  C_\Til  says: 
lUit  Christ's  own  true  sign  is  the  Cross;  a  sign  of  a  luminous  Cross 
shall  go  before  tlu:  King,  jjlainly  declaring  llim  who  was  formerly  cruci- 

'  liritish  Cyclopa-dia.  \\\.  "  Garrliiier."  =  Williams,  Holy  Week,  p.  288. 

'  Didron,  Clirist.  Icon.,  vul.  i,,  p.  369.  *  March,  Ser.  on  S.  Matt,  xxiv.,  30. 


Legends  of  the  Cross  113 

fied ;  tliat  the  Jews,  who  before  pierced  Him  and  plotted  against  Iliin, 
when  they  see  it  may  iiiouni  Iribc  by  tribe,  saying,  '  This  is  He  who  was 
smitten,  this  is  He  whose  face  they  sj^at  on,  this  is  He  on  whom  tliey 
put  chains.  This  is  He  whom  of  old  they  crucified,  and  set  at  naught; 
whither,  they  will  say,  shall  we  flee  from  the  face  of  His  wratli  ?  liut 
the  Angel  of  hosts  shall  encompass  them,  so  tliat  they  shall  not  be  able 
to  flee  anywhere.  The  sign  of  the  Cross  shall  be  a  terror  to  His  foes; 
but  joy  to  His  friends  who  have  believed  in  Him,  or  preached  Him,  or 
suffered  for  His  sake.  Who,  then,  is  that  blessed  man,  who  shall  be 
found  the  friend  of  Christ  ?  That  King,  so  great  and  glorious,  attended 
by  trains  of  angels,  the  fellow  of  the  Father's  throne  will  not  despise  His 
own  servants.  For  lest  His  Elect  be  confused  with  His  foes.  He  shall 
send  His  Angels  with  a  great  sound  of  a  trumpet,  ami  they  sliall gatlier 
together  His  elect  from  the  four  zuinds.  He  despised  not  one,  even  Lot; 
how,  then,  shall  He  despise  many  righteous  ?'  Come  ye  blessed  of  My 
Father,  will  He  say  to  them  who  shall  then  ride  on  chariots  of  clouds, 
and  be  collected  by  angels.'  "  ' 

This,  also,  was  the  belief  of  Origen,  Chrysostom,  S.  Jerome,  Theo- 
phylact,  Augustine,  Bede,  and  others.      Even  the  Sibyl  sang 

O  lignum  felix,  in  quo  dens  ipse  perpcndit ; 
Nee  te  terra  capit,  sed  ea'ii  tecta  videhis, 
Cum  renovata  Dei  faces  iginta  micahis. 

'S.  Cyril,  Catcch.  led.,  xiii.,  41  ;  xv.,  22. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE   TRUE   CROSS   AND   ITS   TRADITIONARY    HISTORY 


Section  I. —  The  Discovery  of  t lie  Cross  by  S.   Helena.     Section  2. —  Tra- 
ditioiary  Persons  at  the  Cross 

WHATEVER  doubt  may  exist  in  the  minds  of  archseologists  of 
these  times  as  to  the  discovery  of  the  very  cross  upon  -which 
our  Saviour  suffered,  there  was  none  in  the  faith  with  which  the  his- 
torians of  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries  recorded  the  disinterment  of  a 
cross  by  the  venerable  Empress  Helena,  which  was  then  everywhere 
received  as  the  veritable  instrument  of  the  Passion  of  our  Lord. 

Section  i.  The  Discovery  of  the  Cross  by  S.  Helena.     S.   Helena, 

a  short  time  before  her 
death, 


Journey  of 
S.  Helena. 


S.  Helen.!  in  Jcrus.ilcm. 
From  VoUk-ncr's  Tlie  l.cgemlary  History  of  t!ic  Cross. 

114 


which  occurred 
at  the  ad- 
vanced age 
of  eighty  years,  jour- 
neyed to  Jerusalem  in 
the  year  326,  impelled, 
jierhaps  we  may  say,  by 
a  divinely  inspired  de- 
sire to  visit  the  spot 
sanctified  b\'  the  sacri- 
fice i)f  the  Lamb  of  God. 
When  she  arri\ed  at 
.Mount  Calvary,  she 
found  it  polluted  b}-  a 
temple  of  Venus,  erect- 
ed by  Hadrian,  as  if  for 
the  express  purpose  of 


The  True  Cross 


"5 


desecrating,  or  concealing  from  Clirislians,  the  spot  to  thctn  the  most 
sacred  in  the  world. 
But  the  very  effort  of 
the  Roman  Emperor  to 
cover  it  with  oblivion 
served  to  keep  alive  the 
remembrance,  as  the 
very  decree  of  the  Eph- 
csian  Senate  dooming 
to  forgetfulness  the  in- 
cendiary of  their  tem- 
ple, perpetuated  his 
memory. 

By  the  order  of  S. 
Helena,  the  idolatrous 
temple   was  destroyed, 

and     its      material,      to-  Discovery  of  the  Crosses. 

"■ether      with      the      SUr-  From  Veldener's   The  Legendary  History  of  the  Cross. 

rounding   soil,   was   removed.      In   doing  this,  the   Holy  Sepulchre  was 

disclosed,  and  not  far 
from  it  the  crosses  of 
our  blessed  Lord  and 
of  those  crucified  with 
him  were  discovered. 
There  is  some  variation 
in  the  accounts  of  the 
manner  in  which  the 
cross  of  our  SAVIOUR 
was  distinguished,  but 
not  more  than  might  be 
expected  from  various 
authors  far  removed 
from  each  other,  and 
from  the  scene  itself.  S. 
Ambrose  and  S.  Chrys- 
ostom    assert    that   our 


Test  of  the  'I'rue  Crus^. 
From  Veldener's  The  Legendary  History  of  the  Cross 


Lord's  cross  was  identified  by  the  title  which  Pontius  Pilate  caused  to 


ii6  History  of  the  Cross 

be  affixed  to  it.      Rufinus,  Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  Theodoret  relate,  as 

the  test,  the  restoration  of  a  sick  woman  who  was  placed  upon  each  of 

^       the  crosses  with  the  earnest  pravers  of   Macarius,    Bishop 

Testimony  of  ^        -  ^ 

Early  Historians.  Qf  Jerusalem,  that  God  would  manifest  by  a  miracle  the 
very  wood  upon  which  His  Sox  suffered.  Paulinus  and  Sulpicius  speak 
of  the  woman  as  being  already  dead,  but  tliat  she  was  restored  to  life 
by  contact  with  the  holy  Cross.  In  this  case  is  it  not  allowable  to  use 
the  same  argument  that  is  employed  to  establish  the  truth  of  the  Gos- 
pels, viz.,  that  the  diversity  of  the  narratives  only  confirms  the  fact  of 
the  discovery  ?  If  there  had  been  any  collusion,  the  stories  would  have 
been  alike. 

The  simple  facts  that  the  discovery  of  three  crosses,  one  of  which  was 
decided  to  be  that  of  our  L(;>KD ;  the  locality  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  and 
the  place  of  Crucifixion  are  spoken  of  by  the  historians  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  as  well  known,  about  which  there  was  no  dispute  or 
doubt  in  their  days,  would  seem  conclusive  to  all  who  are  willing  to 
confess  with  Bishop  Horsley  that  they  "  have  an  unfashionable  partiality 
for  the  opinions  of  antiquity."'  But  Dr.  Robinson,  with  the  cool 
Dr.  Robinson's  Scepticism  of  a  savant  of  the  nineteenth  century,  says: 
jections.  ,.  ^-j^^^  alleged  discovery  of  them   [/.  c,  Golgotha  and  the 

Tomb]  by  the  aged  and  credulous  Helena,  like  the  discovery  of  the 
Cross,  may  not,  improbably,  have  been  the  work  of  fraud.  It  would 
perhaps,  not  be  doing  injustice  to  Bishop  Macarius  and  his  clergy,  if  we 
regard  the  whole  as  a  well  laid  and  successful  plan  for  restoring  to  Jeru- 
salem its  former  consideration,  and  elevating  his  See  to  a  his/her  desrree 
of  influence  and  dignity."'  Elsewhere,  in  his  Researches,  the  Doctor 
acknowledges  that  "  notwithstanding  the  silence  of  Eusebius,  there 
would  seem  to  be  hardly  any  part  of  history  better  accredited  than  the 
alleged  discovery  of  the  true  Cross."  ' 

It  has  been  urged  that  Eusebius,  who  lived  in  those  times,  would  not 
have  been  silent  about  so  important  a  discovery.  It  is  true  that  the  his- 
torian does  not  in  so  manv  precise  words  speak  of  the  dis- 

Testimony  of 

Eusebius  and       covery    of    the    Cross,    but    both    he    and    Theodoret    have 

Theodoret. 

recorded  the    Emperor  Constantine's  letter  to   the    Bishop 
Macarius,  on  the  occasion  of  the  building  of  the  Church  of  the  Resurrec- 

'  Horsley,  Bihiicnl  Criticism,  vol.  ii.,  p.   iSl. 
'  Kobiiison,  liihlical  Reseirchcs,  vol.  ii.,  p.  So. 
'Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  15,  16,  76. 


The  True  Cross  1 1 7 

tion,  and  in  that  he  refers  to  "  the  Token  of  t lie  Saviour' s  most  Holy  Pas- 
sion, buried  beneath  the  earth  of  many  years."  ' 

We  know  tliat  it  was  customary  among  the  Jews  to  bury  the  instru- 
ment of  death,  whatever  it  miglit  liave  been,  with  the  sufferer,  '  but 
Jesus  was  removed  in  haste,  for  tlie  Sabbath  was  nigh,  to  Burial  of 

the  sepulchre  of  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  which  was  a  tomb  the  Cross, 

hewn  in  the  rock,  not  allowing  space  for  the  cross,  even  if  desiretl. 
Again,  although  these  pious  souls  perha[)s  hardly  recognized  the  iwW 
divinity  of  our  blessed  Lord,  yet  they  did  not  look  upon  Him  as  a  crimi- 
nal, and  at  that  moment  they  could  have  viewed  the  cross  with  no  other 
feeling  than  that  of  abhorrence,  hence  the  most  probable  disposition  of 
the  "  unhappy  tree  "  must  have  been  in  the  pit  that  contained  those  of 
his  fellow-sufferers.  That  this  was  the  belief  of  S.  Chrysostom,  who, 
most  likely,  represented  that  of  the  Church  in  his  day,  we  learn  from 
his  own  words:  "  For  since  the  wood  of  the  cross  was  buried,  because 
no  one  was  careful  to  take  it  up,  inasmuch  as  fear  was  pressing,  and  the 
believers  were  hurrying  to  other  urgent  matters;  and  since  it  was  in  after 
times  to  be  sought  for,  and  it  was  likely  that  the  three  crosses  would  lie 
together,  in  order  that  the  Lord's  might  not  be  unknown,  it  was  mani- 
fest to  all,  first  by  its  lying  in  the  middle,  and  then  by  the  title,  for 
those  of  the  thieves  had  no  titles."  " 

S.  Cyril,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  delivered  his  Catcclictical  Lectures 
about  .v. D.  347,  in  the  very  "  Church  of  the  Resurrection  "  erected  by 
Constantine.      In   these  lectures  he  refers  to  the  Cross  as  „  _    .,, 

existing  in  his  day;  ex.  gr.,  "  He  was  crucified  for  our  sins  Testimony, 

truly.  Shouldest  thou  be  disposed  to  deny  it,  the  very  place  which  all 
can  see  refutes  thee,  even  this  blessed  Golgotha,  in  which,  on  account  of 
Him  who  was  crucified  on  it,  we  are  now  assembled,  and,  further,  the 
whole  world,  is  filled  with  the  portions  of  the  wood  of  the  Cross."' 
Again  he  says,  "  Many,  my  beloved,  are  the  true  testimonies  concerning 
Christ,"  and  among  them  he  enumerates,  "  The  holy  ^vood  of  the  Cross 
is  His  witness,  which  is  seen  among  us  to  this  day,  and  by  means  of 
those  who  have  in  faith  taken  thereof,  has,  from  this  place,  now  almost 

'  Eusebius,  Li/f  of  Constantine,  b.  iii.,  c.  50  :   Theodoret,  Eccles.  Hist.,  b.  i.,  c.  17. 

■  Gretser,  Z*!?  Criice,  lib.  i.,  cap.  37.  Smith.  McClintock,  and  Strong,  in  their  Encyclo- 
pedias say  the  cross  was  burned,  and  refer  to  Otho's  Lex.  Rub.  as  authority,  but  we  liave 
preferred  the  opinion  of  the  Fathers,  that  it  was  buried. 

'  S.  Chrysostom  on  S.  John,  Horn.,  Ixxxv.  ■*  S.  Cyril,  Catech.  Led.,  iv.,  lo. 


ii8  History  of  the  Cross 

filled  the  whole  world."'  Again,  speaking  against  the  Docetse,  who 
denied  the  reality  of  Christ's  Passion,  he  says,  "  Jesus  then  really  suf- 
fered for  all  men;  for  the  Cross  was  no  illusion  .  .  .  for,  though  I 
should  now  deny  it,  this  Golgotha  confutes  me,  near  which  we  are  now 
assembled;  the  wood  of  the  Cross  confutes  me,  which  has  from  thence 
been  distributed  piecemeal  to  all  the  world."  ^ 

It  is  not  marvellous  that  wood  should  remain  underground  for  the 

space  of  three  hundred  years  without  decay.      Many  instances  could  be 

adduced  of  wood  being  preserved  for  as  long  a  time,  ex.  gr., 

The  Preservation 

of  the  Cross         tliccoffin  of  Bishop  Covcrdale,  who  died  in    1569  (or  1580, 

under  Ground  ^.    .  ,       ,\   .        ^ 

not  Necessarily  accorduTg  to  somc  accounts),  has  been  disinterred  within  the 
a  Miracle.  j^^^  ^^^^^  years,  having  remained  undecayed  in  the  ground  for 

about  as  many  years  as  did  the  crosses;  and  this  in  the  damp  soil  of 
England,  so  that  in  the  drier  earth  of  Palestine  the  mere  preservation  of 
a  beam  of  oak  involves  no  miracle.^ 

That  a  cross,  or  rather  that  three  crosses  were  found,  is  settled  be- 
yond reasonable  dispute.  The  question  is,  was  one  of  them  that  on 
Summary  of  which  our  blcsscd  Lord  suffered?  We  have  the  following 
proo  as  to  summarv    of    testimony.      The   instrument   of    torture   and 

Finding  the  .'  ' 

Three  Crosses,  jeatli  was,  among  the  Jews,  usually  buried  with  the  sufferer. 
Crosses  were  found  where  it  was  well  known  that  Christ  and  the  two 
crucified  with  Him  were  e.xecuted.  As  to  the  miracle  identifying  the 
true  Cross,  that  may  be  exaggerated.  Wonderful  events,  told  by  distant 
historians,  naturally  became  distorted.  But  the  historians  who  record 
the  discovery  of  the  Cross  agree  in  the  main  fact,  and  their  testimony  is 
received  as  truthful  and  credible  in  other  matters.  Have  we  a  right  to 
doubt,  then,  in  this  ?  It  must  be  concluded  that  the  cross,  claimed  as 
the  true  Cross,  was  that  upon  which  our  Saviour  died,  or  that  a  gross 
fraud  was  perpetrated  by  Bishop  Macarius  and  his  clergy.  Dr.  Robin- 
son insinuates  the  latter,  although  professing  to  wish  "  no  injustice  done 

'  S.  Cyril,  Catech.  Led.,  x.,  19. 

'  IHd.,  xiii.,  4.  The  authenticity  of  the  letter  of  S.  Cyril  to  Const.intine  h.is  been  doubted. 
There  is  proof  enough  without  it,  yet  as  a  matter  of  interest  the  passage  in  which  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Cross  is  referred  to  is  quoted.  "  In  the  time  of  tliy  father,  the  divinely  fav- 
ored Constantine  of  blessed  memory,  the  salutary  wood  of  the  Cross  was  found  in  Jerusalem. 
Divine  grace  granting  the  discovery  of  the  hidden  holy  places  to  one  who  laudably  pursued 
religious  objects." 

'  A  spring  lock  which  apparently  had  belonged  to  the  Crusaders  was  dug  up  a  few  years  ago 
at  Jerusalem,  still  in  working  order,  although  it  had  been  under  ground  four  or  five  hundred 
years.     Williams.  I/ofy  City. 


The  True  Cross 


119 


The  Festival  of 

the  "  Invention 

of  the  Cross  " 

Appointed  by 

the  Church. 


to  them."  Hut  tluMi-  characters  have  ever  stood  above  suspicion.  Be- 
sides, which  is  the  more  i)robable:  a  well-sustained,  successful  fraud,  or 
the  simple  discovery  of  a  relic,  in  the  very  place  pointed  out  by  tradition, 
which  was  only  three  hundred  years  old  ? ' 

The  opinion  of  the  Church  that  the  pious  search  of  S.  Helena  should 
at  least  be  commemor- 
ated is  shown  by  the  ap- 
pointment 
of  the  Fes- 
tival of  the 
Invention 

of  the  Cross  (May  3di 
by  the  Greek,  Roman, 
and  Anglican  branches, 
and  the  latter  also  re- 
tained the  festival  at 
the  time  of  the  refor- 
mation of  the  calendar, 
when  she  struck  out 
many  holy  days  as  sa- 
voring of  superstition. 

The  Cross  was  di- 
vided into  three  prin- 
cipal parts,  of  which  one,  enclosed  in  a  case  of  silver,  was  committed 
to  the  care  of  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  '' ;  another  part  was  sent  to  Rome, 
where   it  is  preserved  under  the  dome  of  S.  Peter's.     This      _. 

^  Disposition  of 

must  not  be  confounded  with  the  title  which  is  at  S.  Croce  ''"'  cross. 


S.  Helena  Deposits  a  Portion  of  the  Cross  in  Jerusalem. 
From  Veldener's  T/ic  Lfgendary  History  of  the  Cross. 


in  Gerusalemme  at   Rome, 
tinople. 


The  third  fragment  was  sent  to  Constan- 


'  As  Bishop  Odenheinier  ask' 
memory  of  Plymouth  Rock     . 


Is  there  no  Puritan  tradition  which  jealously  embahns  the 
and  preserves  to  this  day  the  site  where  the  so-called  Pil- 
grim Fathers  landed?  "  yeriisalcin  and  its  Sacred  Localities,  p.  206.  "  For  my  own  part," said 
Bishop  Wainwright  when  visiting  these  sacred  localities,  "  since  faith  is  a  higher  principle  than 
doubt,  I  look  upon  the  believer  even  in  the  impossible  with  greater  reverence,  than  upon  the  un- 
happy universal  skeptic."  Pathways  0/  Our  Lord,  p.  104.  For  a  full  examination  of  sacred 
localities,  see  Williams,  Holy  City.  For  a  defence  of  the  discovery  of  the  Cross,  Newman's 
Introduction  to  the  portion  translated  of  Fleury's  Ecclesiastical  History. 

^  A  guardian  was  appointed  over  this  fragment  of  the  Cross,  as  we  learn  from  the  mention 
of  Porphyrins,  who  was  ordained  Bishop  of  Gaza  about  a.d.  395,  that  he  had  been  the  Staitro- 
phtilox,  or  custodian,  of  the  lioly  Cross.     Fleury.,  Kccles.  Hist.,  b.  xxi.,  S.     Lord  Mahon,  while 


I20  History  of  the  Cross 

The  Jerusalem  fragment  often  appears  in  the  pages  of  history.      In 
A.D.  614,  Jerusalem  was  invaded  by  Chosroes,  King  of  Persia,  who  de- 
stroyed the  churches  erected   by  S.  Helena,  and  carried  to 

Jerusalem  ' 

Fragment.  ]^jg  q^^,,^  countrv  the  portion  of  the  holy  Cross.     The   Pa- 

triarch of  Jerusalem,  Zacharias,  accompanied  by  the  sacred  relic,  and  the 
wife  of  Chosroes,  who  was  a  Christian,  carefully  preserved  it  from  dese- 
cration. For  fourteen  years  it  remained  in  the  keeping  of  the  Persians, 
when  they  were  conquered  by  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  who  carried  the 
holy  relic  to  Constantinople.  The  next  year  it  was  restored  to  Jerusa- 
lem, and  on  the  fourteenth  of  September,  a  day  commemorated  in  the 
calendars  of  the  Church  as  that  of  the  "  Exaltation  of  the  Cross," 
Heraclius,  having  disrobed  himself  of  his  royal  apparel  and 

Festival  of 

Exaltation  put  on   mean   garments,  entered  the  holy  city  with  bared 

of  the  Cross.  ,  ,  ,    r  •  1   ■         1  1  1  ■  r      ^ 

head  and  feet,  carr_\-ing  upon  Ins  shoulder  a  portion  oi  that 
burden  whicli  he  believed  was  once  borne  by  our  S.WloUR  Himself.  In 
A.D.  635  or  636,  Heraclius  was  driven  from  Jerusalem,  and  reconveyed 
the  sacred  treasure  to  Constantinople.  Either  it  soon  found  its  way 
back,  or  a  portion  of  it  must  have  been  preserved  in  the  holy  city,  for  it 
is  often  mentioned  in  history.  But  little  of  note  occurred  until  the 
battle  of  Tiberias,  July  3  and  4,  11 87,  when  the  Cross  was  placed  on  a 
hill  as  a  rallying-point  for  the  broken  squadrons.  Long  and  bitter  was 
the  contest,  for  the  Christians  fought  for  the  altar  of  their  Sacrifice,  but 
the  heathen  were  victorious,  and  "  what  Avas  most  lamented,"  saith 
Matthew  Paris,  "  the  Cross  which  freed  men  from  the  capti\'ity  of  tlieir 
sins  was  taken  by  Saladin."  ' 

Frederick  Barbarossa  endeavored  to  obtain  its  restitution,  but  the 
wily  conqueror,  aware  of  the  value  set  upon  it  b)-  the  Christians,  de- 
manded, as  its  ransom,  the  cities  of  Tyre,  Antioch,  and  Tripoli,  then  in 
the  possession  of  the  Crusaders;  promising  also  that  if  these  were  given 
up,  he  would  restore  the  sacred  wood,  and  permit  pilgrims  to  visit  Jeru- 
salem. These  conditions  probably  were  not  accepted,  for,  in  12 18,  we 
find  the  Sultan,  Malik-el-Camel,  proposing,  in  order  to  save  Damietta 
the  key  of  his  kingdom,  to  deliver  up  Jerusalem,  to  advance  money  to 

apparently  douliting  the  genuineness  of  the  relic,  admits  its  preservation  :  "  From  this  period, 
however,  the  history  of  this  fragment  of  wood  may  be  clearly  and  accurately  traced  during  the 
twelve  succeeding  centuries."  Essay  read  before  the  Royal  Society  of  Antiquarians,  Feb.  10, 
1881.      Bagley,  Graphic  Illustrator,  p.  263. 

'  Fuller.  Holy  War,  book  ii.,  chap.  45  ;  Vertot,  Hist,  of  Uie  A'iiif;hts  of  Malta,  vol.  i.,  p.  177. 


The  True  Cross  121 

rebuild  its  walls,  and  to  Ljivc  up  the  true  Cross.  Two  years  later,  the 
Christians  being  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  were  obliged  to  quit  Danii- 
etta,  and  to  deliver  to  their  foes  their  slaves  and  prisoners  at  Acre  and 
Tyre.  The  Saracens  on  their  part  agreed  to  give  up  their  captives  of 
Cairo  and  Damascus,  to  conduct  the  army  to  a  place  of  safety,  and  to 
restore  the  true  Cross.  "  Everything  was  executed  on  both  sides,"  says 
Vertot,  "  except  the  restitution  of  the  true  Cross,  which  the  infidels  in 
all  probability  had  lost."  '  Yet  it  has  been  claimed  that  it  was  restored 
and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Knights  Templar,  and  preserved  by  them 
until  their  dissolution  by  Philip  the  Fair.  In  the  Manual  of  York,  1509, 
however,  there  is  a  prayer  which  would  intimate  that  it  had  not  been 
rescued  from  the  paynim.  "  We  shall  make  special  prayer  .  .  .  for 
the  holy  Crosse  that  God  was  done  upon,  that  God  for  His  merci  bringe 
it  out  of  the  hethen  mennes  handes  into  Cristen  mennes  kepynge. " 

The  fragment  of  the  Cross  sent  to  Constantinople  is  said  to  have  been 
that  which  was  transferred  to  S.  Louis  of  France  in  A.u.  1241  by  Raid- 
win  the  Second;  ostensibly  for  fear  lest  it  should  fall  into 

Constantinople 

the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  but  more  probably  as  a  pledge     Fragment  sent 

to  Paris. 

for  means  to  carry  on  the  Crusade.      Its  arrival  in  Paris  is 
commemorated  on  the  seventh  of  August,  as  the  Feast  of  the  "  Suscep- 
tion  of  the  Cross."     S.    Louis  deposited  the  sacred  relic. 

Festival  of 

which   he  met   with   due  reverence,    in    the   Church   of   S.  Susception 

of  the  Cross. 

Stephen  at  Sens  until  a  chapel  could  be  erected  and  conse- 
crated by  the  Pope's  legate  in  Paris.  The  King,  having  fasted  three 
days,  imitated  the  example  of  Hcraclius,  and  with  bare  feet  and  head, 
his  garments  ungirt  and  of  mean  material,  bore  the  precious  wood  to  its 
shrine.  This  same  fragment,  or  a  portion  of  it,  S.  Louis  caused  to  be 
set  in  gold,  and  he  himself  showed  it  publicly  at  solemn  festivals  and 
holy  days  to  the  people.'     This  custom  was  continued  by  his  successors. 

'  Vertot,  Hist.  Knights  of  Malta,  vol.  i.,  pp.  267,  269.  In  the  treaty  of  Acre  the  Saracens 
had  promised  to  return  the  true  Cross,  and  gave  hostages  for  the  fulfihnent  of  this  agreement. 
After  some  delay,  the  condition  not  having  been  performed,  Richard  I.  threatened  to  cut  off  the 
heads  of  the  pagans  in  his  hands.  Saladin  anticipated  him  by  sacrificing  the  Christians  in  his 
possession.  The  King  kept  his  word,  the  captives  were  beheaded  in  the  sight  of  Saladin's 
army.  The  bodies  were  disembowelled,  and  it  is  added  that  much  silver  and  gold  were  found 
in  the  entrails.  The  gall  obtained  from  the  victims  was  used  for  medical  purposes.  Riley's 
Hoveden,  ii. ,  p.  220.  However,  there  is  a  piece  of  the  Cross  still  preserved  at  Jerusalem. 
Curzon,  Monasteries  of  the  Levant,  chap.  xiii. 

^  According  to  Favine,  S.  Louis,  on  Good  Friday,  1241,  caused  the  portion  of  the  Cross  to 
be  brought  into  the   Abbatial  church  of  "  S.   Anthouee  des  camps  lez  Paris,   at   the  entrance 


^1 


122  History  of  the  Cross 

A  cui'ious  historical  incident  connected  with  this  appears  in  tlie  Acts  of 
the  EngUsh  Parhament  in  1423,  whereby  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  Regent 
of  France,  for  his  nephew,  Henry  VI.  of  England  (challenging  his  title 
to  France),  and  "  representing  his  person;  shall  show  on  Good  Friday, 
the  true  Cross  to  the  people,  as  the  kings  of  France  used  the  same  day 
to  do."  '  During  the  French  Rev^olution  a  pious  person  concealed  the 
relic  and,  when  the  storm  of  licentious  infidelity  had  subsided,  restored 
it  to  its  former  shrine. 

A  part  of  the  Cross  sent  by  the  Empress  Helena  to  Rome  is  enshrined 
in  the  place  of  honor  under  the  dome  of  S.  Peter's.  The  history  of  the 
Uotnan  more  important  part,  the  greater  portion  of  that  claimed  to 

Fragment.  ^^    ^j^^    identical    title  placed  by   Pontius   Pilate  over  our 

Lord,  \\-ill  be  given  in  the  succeeding  chapter.  Sixtus  V.  enclosed  a 
fragment  in  the  cross  which  surmounts  the  obelisk  in  the  Piazza  of  S. 
Peter's. 

From  the  numerous  fragments  of  which  we  read,  it  would  seem  as  if 
S.  Cyril's  words  were  to  be  taken  literally,  and  "  that  the  world  was  filled 
with  pieces  of  the  Cross."  Some,  true  or  false,  have  become  famous, 
owing  to  association,  and  we  will  note  a  few  of  the  most  celebrated. 

The  Palatine  cross  is  so  called  because  it  was  bequeathed  by  the  Prin- 
cess Palatine,  Anna  Gonzaga,  to  the  monks  of  S.  Germain  in  Paris.  The 
Princess  had  received  it  from  John  Casimir,  King  of  Poland, 

Palatine  Cross.       .  ,   .    ,  .1,1  ^    r  1 

m  which  country  it  had  been  preserved  for  many  years,  and 
was  believed  to  be  genuine.  It  had  been  a  gift  from  one  of  the  Greek 
emperors.  The  story  is  told  that  its  sanctity  was  tested  by  having  been 
preserved  intact  in  a  fire  so  intense  that  the  glass  and  gold  setting  were 
melted. 

When  the  tomb  of  Charlemagne  was  opened,  the  Emperor  was  dis- 

whereof  was  prepared  a  tlieatre,  whereon  the  King,  the  Queens,  Blanche  his  mother,  and  Mar- 
garet of  Provence  his  wife,  and  his  three  brethren  mounted  ;  the  Archbishops,  Bishops,  Pre- 
lates, Princes  and  great  lords,  and  an  infinite  number  of  the  people  assisted  in  the  ceremonie." 
From  Ihence  the  Cross  was  carried  to  Notre-Dame  by  the  King  ;  one  of  his  brothers  bearing  the 
crown  of  thorns,  which  had  been  previously  pledged  by  Baldwin.  This  same  piece  of  the  Cross 
had  been  pawned  by  the  sons  of  John  De  lirenne  to  the  Venetians  for  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  of  silver.  Charles  VII.  exhibited  the  relic  on  Wednesday,  Nov.  13,  1457.  Theatre  of 
Honour,  \o\.  i.,  p.  151.  The  relic  is  now  ])reserved  in  the  Sainte  Chapclle  ;  some  say  it  was 
secretly  sold  by  Henry  III.  to  the  Venetians,  yet  Lord  Mahon  considers  this  false,  but  s.iys  the 
Paris  fragment  disappeared  on  the  2oth  of  May,  1575.  Mahon,  Essay  on  the  True  Cross,  read 
at  the  Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries,  February,  1834. 
'  Favine,   Theatre  0/  Honour ,  vol.  i.,  p.  153. 


The  True  Cross  123 

covered  sitting  on  a  golden  throne,  ;nul  vcstctl  in  his  imperial  i-obes. 
The  double  crown  of  France  and  ("iernian\'  was  on  his  fleshless  brow;  his 
pilgrim's  wallet  was  by  his  side,  and  his  good  sword  Joyeusc, 

'      =•  ■'  ^  •'    ■'  \  Fragment 

with  which,  according  to  the  monks  of  S.  Denis,  the  mighty     from  the  Tomb 

of  Charlemagne. 

monarch  once  clove  asunder  a  knight  clad  in  complete 
armor.  Mis  feet  rested  upon  the  buckler  of  gold  given  him  by  I'ope 
Leo  III.,  and  from  his  neck  was  suspended  by  a  massive  chain  of  gold 
the  talisman  which  he  believed  rendered  him  victorious,  a  part  of 
the  true  Cross,  the  gift  of  the  Empress  Irene,  enclosed  in  an  emerald. 
In  181 1,  this  invaluable  relic  was  presented  by  the  burghers  of  Ai.xda- 
Chapellc  to  Napoleon;  he  wore  it  upon  his  breast  in  the  battles  of 
Austerlitz  and  Wagram,  after  the  example  of  his  illustrious  predecessor, 
who  for  nine  years  never  entered  into  battle  without  it.  Bonaparte 
afterwards  gave  it  to  Queen  Hortense,  from  whose  bosom  it  was  never 
absent.' 

In  the  Cathedral  of  Seville  a  piece  of  the  Cross  is  preserved.  Its 
genuineness  was  tested  by  Archbishop  Alonzo  de  Fonseca,  who  placed 
it  on  a  brazier  of  burning  coals  where  it  remained  during 

°       Piece  in  Spain. 

the  performance  of  mass;  it  filled  the  church  with  fragrance, 

and  was  unscathed.     The  pious  prelate  records  the  fact,  but  forgets  to 

mention  the  nature  of  the  wood." 

Great  Britain  very  early  received  portions  of  the  sacred  relic.  In  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  it  is  recorded  that  in  A.D.  883,  Alfred  the  Great 
received  a  fragment  from  the  Pope,  Martin   II.,  of  Rome. 

°  In  Great  Britain. 

After  the  time  of  the  Crusades  frequent  mention  is  made  in 
the  wills  of  the  devout,  of  pieces  left  as  pious  legacies  to  churches  or 
friends.  Henry  VII.  thus  solemnly  bequeaths  a  portion  which  he  says 
was  brought  from  Greece.  Malmesbury  Abbey  for  a  long  time  treasured 
a  fragment  which  it  received  from  Athelstan,  to  whom  it  was  presented 
by  Hugh  of  France. 

Capgrave  thus  details  the  history  of  the  Cross  at  Bromshold.  "  S. 
Helena  having  found  the  Crosse,  did  divide  it  in  nine  parts  according  to 
the  nine  orders  of  angels;  of  one  part  thereof  which  was  most  sprinkled 
with  Christ's  blood,  his  hands  and  feet  being  thereto  nailed,  she  made  a 
little  crosse,   which  she  enclosed  in  a   bo.x  of  gold  beset  with  precious 

'  Barrera,  Gems  and  yeiuch,  p.  272. 

'  Alonzo  Morgado,  Histcria  dc  Sevilla,  1587.  p.  102. 


124  History  of  the  Cross 

stones  and  gave  it  to  her  soiine  Constantine.  It  went  successively  from 
one  Emperor  to  another  until  it  came  to  Baldwin.  ...  So  long  as 
hee  carried  this  crosse  with  him  to  bataile  hee  had  ever  upper  hand  of 
his  enemies,  but  fogetting  it,  hee  was  forthwith  slain :  upon  which  his 
chaplaine  Hugh  stole  secretly  away  with  the  said  boxe  and  Crosse,  and 
came  to  this  monastery  of  Bromholm.  ...  By  the  virtue  of  this 
holy  crosse,  co-operaiitc  Douiino,  thirty  and  nine  persons  were  raised  from 
death  to  life,  and  nineteen  which  were  blind  received  their  sight ;  besides 
many  other  miracles  which  it  wrought,  if  you  believe  my  author."  ' 

Ireland  is  enriched  with  several  fragments  of  the  true  Cross.     Paschal 

II.  presented  one  to  Murtogh,  one  of  the  Kings  of  Ireland,  in  mo.      In 

honor  of  the  gift,  the  grateful   sovereign  built  the  Cister- 

In  Ireland. 

cian  Abbey  of  Holy  Cross  near  Thurles.  Barry  Oge  gave 
another  piece  to  the  abbey  belonging  to  the  same  Order  in  Tracton, 
in  1 380.  A  third  is  preserved  near  Dublin,  and  in  the  contest  between 
the  competitors  for  the  priory  of  Kelmainham  in  1482,  it  is  related  that 
one  party  had  been  deprived  of  its  privileges  by  the  grand  Master  of  the 
Order  for  pawning  a  piece  of  the  true  Cross." 

Very  soon  the  demand  for  portions  of  the  precious  relic  increased 
beyond  the  natural  ability  of  the  Cross  to  supply  it.  Supernatural 
,.  ...  ,.    ..       ,  power  was  attributed   to   it.     "  The  crosse,"  writes   Riba- 

Multiplication  of   ^ 

the  Fragments.  Jeneira,^  who  fathers,  probably  unjustly,  his  words  upon 
Paulinus,  "  being  a  piece  of  wood  without  sense  or  feeling,  yet  seemeth 
to  have  in  it  a  living  and  everlasting  virtue;  and  from  that  time  to  this, 
it  permitted  itself  to  be  parted  and  divided  to  comply  with  innumerable 
persons,  and  yet  snffereth  no  loss  or  detriment."  Marvellous  indeed 
must  have  been  the  increase  to  supply  the  centuries  of  demand,  but  no 
less  marvellous  than  the  miracle  that  many  of  the  fragments  are  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  wood,  yet  that  may  be  in  part  accounted  for  by  admitting 
that  the  Cross  was  composed  of  divers  kinds.  Two  hundred  years  ago, 
Erasmus  declared  that  "  if  the  fragments  of  the  Cross  were  collected, 
enough  would  be  found  for  the  building  of  a  ship,  and  yet  our  Lord 
carried  the  whole  in  his  Cross. ' ' '  Voltaire  also  sneers  in  similar  language ; 
Swift,   too,   whose  wit  was  never  sacrificed  to  his  reverence,  sa\s  that 

'  Capgrave,  Life  of  Kiug  Edmund,  quoted  in  Weaver's  Funeral  Monuments.  I'iers  Plowman 
says,  "  But  wenten  to  Walsingham,  and  my  wife  Alis  and  byd  the  Roode  of  Bronholme  bring 
me  out  of  dette,"  '''  flos  Sanctorum,  p.  317. 

-  Maiit.  Hist,  of  the  Chure/i  in  Ireland,  vol.  i.,  p.  70.  *  Dialogue  on  Pilgrimages. 


The  True  Cross  125 

Lord  Peter  "  was  telling  of  an  old  Sign  Post  that  belonged  to  his  P'athcr, 
with  nails  and  timber  enough  on  it  to  build  sixteen  large  men  of  war."  ' 

Calvin  admits  that  it  is  considered  as  a  certain  fact  that  S.  1  lelena  did 
discover  the  true  Cross,  yet  he  thinks  the  search  was  one  of  foolish 
curiosity,  and,  as  to  the  innumerable  relics  now  claimed  to  be  parts  of  it, 
he  says,  "  the  Gospel  testifies  that  the  Cross  could  be  borne  by  one 
single  individual;  how  glaring,  then,  is  the  audacity  now  to  pretend  to 
display  more  relics  of  wood  than  three  hundred  men  could  carry  "  ! '■"  To 
such  statements  Dr.  Rock  answers:  "  Large  crosses  of  wood,  upon 
which  short  thread-like  chips  from  the  true  Cross  were  glued,  have  been 
at  times  mistaken  by  the  heedless  traveller,  or  shamelessly  passed  off  by 
exaggerating  and  boastful  sacristans,  for  so  many  portions  of  the  true 
Cross  itself."  Hence  the  above  slur,  but  "  the  thin,  almost  indiscer]iible 
parings  from  the  true  Cross  itself,  all,  if  brought  together  and  put  into  a 
scale,  would  not  weigh  many  ounces."  ' 

Fuller  thus  quaintly  writes  on  this  subject:  "And  though  some 
know  no  more  than  ^'Esop's  cock  how  to  prize  these  pearls,  let  them 
learn  the  true  value  of  them  from  the  Roman  jewellers.  .  .  .  As 
for  the  common  exception  against  the  Crosse,  that  so  many  several 
pieces  thereof  are  shown,  which  put  together  would  break  the  back  nf 
Simon  Cyrene  to  bear  them,  it  is  answered,  Distraliitur,  iioii  diiiiiintitin\ 
and,  like  the  loaves  in  the  Gospel,  it  is  miraculously  multiplied  in  the 
dividing.  If  all  these  fail,  Baronius  hath  a  razour  shaveth  all  scruple 
clear  away:  For,  saith  he,  Qiiicquid  sit  fides  purgat  faciniis ;  so  he  that 
worshipeth  the  false  relics  of  a  true  saint,  God  taketh  his  good  intention 
in  good  worth,  though  he  adore  the  hand  of  Esau,  for  the  hand  of 
Jacob."  ■■ 

Before  dismissing  this  part  of  our  subject,  it  is  well  to  quote  the 
opinion  of  one  of  the  most  pleasant  and  learned,  yet  irreverent,  of 
archaeologists.  Speaking  of  the  relics  shown  as  of  the  true  Cross,  he 
says:  "  Of  the  three  principid  pieces,  one  is  now,  or  lately  was,  at 
Etchmiazin  in  Armenia,  the  monks  of  which  are  accused  of  having  stolen 
it  from  the  Latins  of  Jerusalem  when  they  were  imprisoned  by  Sultan 
Suleiman.     The  second  piece  is  still  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  hands  of  the 

'  Talc  of  a  Tub,  sec.  iv. 

^  Calvin,   Treatise  on  Relics,  p.  233. 

'  Rock,  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  i/g,  2S0,  note. 

*  Fuller,  Historic  of  the  Holy  ll'arrc,  book  iii.,  ch.ip,  12. 


126  History  of  the  Cross 

Greeks;  and  the  third  was  sent  by  the  Empress  Helena  herself  to  the 
Church  of  Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme  at  Rome.  There  is  indeed 
little  reason  to  doubt  that  the  piece  of  wood  exhibited  at  Rome  is  the 
same  that  the  Empress  sent  there  in  the  year  326.  ...  I  may 
remark  that  all  the  very  ancient  specimens  of  the  relics  of  the  true  Cross 
are  of  the  same  wood,  which  has  a  very  peculiar  half  petrified  appear- 
ance." ' 

Those  who  have  investigated  the  subject  most  fully  in  our  day,  all 
unite  in  one  testimony,  that  but  little  is  to  be  found  at  present  through- 
out Christendom  claiming  to  be  the  original  wood.  Dr.  William  C. 
Prime,  in  his  interesting  monograph  on  this  subject,"  emphatically  states 
that  "  there  are  very  few  fragments  anywhere  which  profess  to  be  relics 
of  the  holy  Cross.  The  common  idea  that  enough  wood  is  shown  in 
various  places  as  relics  of  the  true  Cross  to  build  a  dozen  crosses  is  a 
very  foolish  error,  invented  by  some  one  who  imagined  that  Mdien  a 
church  claimed  to  possess  a  piece  of  the  true  Cross,  it  must  be  a  piece  of 
at  least  some  feet  in  length  and  solid  contents.  Generally  speaking,  that 
very  rare  and  highly  prized  relic,  '  a  piece  of  the  true  Cross,'  whether 
possessed  by  a  churcJi,  a  crowned  head,  or  a  private  individual,  is  a 
minute  speck  of  wood,  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  set  sometimes 
on  an  i\-ory  tablet,  always  enclosed  in  a  costly  rcliquairc.  No  other 
fragment  is  known  so  large  as  the  Santa  Croce  tablet,  which  is  not  ten 
inches  long  by  seven  wide.  There  are  but  very  few  fragments  known 
which  are  large  enough  to  be  called  pieces  of  wood.  Leaving  out  tlie 
Santa  Croce  tablet,  all  the  relics  of  the  holy  Cross,  chiimed  to  be  such, 
that  I  have  been  able  to  hear  of  in  all  the  world,  if  gathered  into  one 
piecC;  would  not  make  another  block  of  wood  as  large  as  the  Santa 
Croce  tablet.  This  tablet  is  not  generally  spoken  of  as  a  part  of  the 
Cross  itself." 

Section  2.  Traditionary  Persons  at  the  Cross. — The  tradition- 
ary history  of  the  Cross  and  Crucifixion  \\'ould  be  incomplete  without 
mention  of  the  persons  whom  love  and  failh,  altlunigh  beclouded,  have 
grouped  around  the  altar  of  Cal\-ar\-.  A  brief  account  will  suffice,  as 
they  arc  so  well  known  by  their  representations  in  art. 

'  Curzon,  Monasteries  of  tlie  Levant,  chap.  xiii. 

*  Holy  Cross,  a  History  of  the  Invention,  Preservation,  and  Disappearance  of  the  Wood 
Known  as  the  True  Cross,  pp.  59,  60. 


The  True  Cross 


127 


S.  Veronica. 


S.  Veronica  may  claim  precedence,  as  Ijeiiitj  honored  by  a  shrine  at 
the  right  hand  of  the  hiij-h  altar  of  S.  I'eter's  at  Rome.  There  are 
various  versions  of  this  legend.  According  to  one,  our 
Saviour  was  passing  her  door,  bearing  Hi.s  Cross,  when, 
touched  with  compassion,  she  wiped  the  drops  of  agony  from  His  face, 
and  the  features  of  our  Lord  were  imprinted  upon  the  cloth  or  sudarinin. 
Hence  the  name  vera  icon,  or  true 


L)  1    L  I  Ll  e    ^^ 

trans-  Ij 


image,  which  in  time  was 
f  erred  to  the  woman  herself. 
Some  say,  however,  that  she  was  ' 
Bcrnice,  or  Veronica,  the  niece  of  [ 
Herod,  being  daughter  of  Salome, 
his  sister,  who  was  suddenly  con- 
verted at  the  sight  of  the  suffering 
Saviour.  Being  sent  for  by  Ti- 
berius to  heal  him  of  his  sickness, 
she  went  to  Rome,  too  late,  how- 
ever, to  save  the  Emperor,  and 
finally  suffered  martyrdom  under 
Nero.  According  to  another  ac- 
count she  came  to  Europe  with 
Lazarus  and  Mary  Magdalene,  and 
sealed  her  faith  with  her  blood  in 
Provence  or  Acquitaine.  Veron- 
ica is  rarely  absent  from  early  jjic- 
tures  of  the  Crucifixion.      She  also  appears  in  the  Coventry'  Mysteries. 


S.  Veronica's  Napkin,  at  S.  I'eter's,  Rome. 
From  Harper's  Magazim. 


Veronica.      A  !   ze  synful  pepyl,  why  fare  thus  ? 
ffor  swet  and  blod  he  may  not  se  ! 
Alias  !  holy  prophete,  Cryst  Jhesus  ! 
Careful  is  myn  hart  for  the  ! 

And  slic  7i.'Iiypytli  liis  face  nniii  Iter  kcrchy. 

"yiiesus.     Veronica,  the  whipyng  doth  me  ese  ! 

My  face  is  clene  that  was  blak  to  se  : 
I  xal  them  kepe  from  alle  mysese. 

That  token  on  thi  kerchy  and  remembyr  me  !  ' 

'  There  is  another  version  which  removes  Veronica  from  the  scene  of  the  Crucifixion.      She 
was  the  woman  that  was  healed  by  touching  Christ's  robe.     Desiring  a  portrait  of  Him,  S.  Luke 


128  History  of  the  Cross 

Longinus  was  the  centurion  wlio,  at  the  command  of  Pilate,  pierced 

the  side  of  our  Lord  with  a  lance,  and,  moved  by  the  eclipse  of  the  sun 

and  the  earthquake,  believed  in  Christ.     Through  disease 

S.  Longinus.  ,  ,.      ,      ,  i         i  i  i        r    /^i 

or  age  he  was  purblind,  but  the  blood  of  Christ  streaming 
from  the  spear  accidently  touched  his  eyes  and  his  sight  was  restored. 
Renouncing  his  profession,  he  was  taught  by  the  Apostles  and  dwelt  in 
Caesarea  twenty-eight  years,  converting  many  by  his  words  and  example. 
Then  the  governor  commanded  him  to  sacrifice  to  idols,  and  on  his 
refusal  ordered  his  teeth  to  be  drawn  and  his  tongue  to  be  cut  out.  But 
Longinus  did  not  lose  the  power  of  speech,  and  seizing  an  axe  he  dashed 
in  pieces  the  idols,  saying,  "Behold  if  these  are  God."  Then  the 
demons,  coming  out  of  the  idols,  entered  into  the  governor  and  his 
friends,  who,  becoming  insane,  fell  headlong  at  the  feet  of  the  saint. 
Longinus  demanded  of  the  devils  why  they  dwelt  in  the  idols.  They 
answered,  "  Wherever  Christ  is  not  named,  or  his  sign  placed,  there  is 
our  abode."  Then  Longinus  said  unto  the  governor,  on  whom  blind- 
ness had  now  fallen,  "  It  is  impossible  that  thou  sliouldst  be  healed 
unless  thou  first  slay  me,  when  I  will  pray  and  thou  shalt  receive  health 
of  mind  and  body."  Then  the  governor  ordered  that  he  should  be 
beheaded,  but  immediately  after  cast  himself  upon  the  body,  weeping 
tears  of  penitence.  And  instantly  his  health  of  mind  and  body  were 
restored,  and  he  ended  his  life  in  good  works.' 

Such  is  the  story  of  the  Golden  Legend,  and  that  which  is  recei\-ed 
in  the  Romish  Cluirch.  But  there  is  a  sad  confusion  of  the  soldier  who 
pierced  our  Saviour's  side  after  his  death,  \\'ith  the  centurion,  who,  at 
sight  of  the  miracles  when  Jesus  "  gave  up  the  ghost,"  confessed, 
"  Truly  this  was  the  Son  of  God,"  and,  therefore,  since  then  has  been 
honored  as  the  "  first  fruits  of  the  Gentiles." 

Like  Veronica's,  the  altar  of  S.  Longinus  is  one  of  the  four  under  the 
dome  of  S.  Peter's,  and,  like  his  name,  has  evidently  been  made  to  suit 

thrice  painted  it.  lUit  nil  were  unlike.  Then  Christ  said  unio  her.  "  Unless  I  aid  you,  Luke's 
art  is  in  vain,  for  my  face  is  only  known  to  Him  who  sent  me."  .Afterwards  bein;;  at  her  house 
He  asked  for  water  to  wash  His  face,  and  returned  her  the  napkin  with  tlie  portrait,  which  works 
miracles.  At  length  the  Roman  Emperor  sends  for  it.  Some  say  it  was  Tiberius  afflicted  with 
worms  in  his  head  ;  others  that  it  was  Vespasian  with  a  wasp's  nest  in  his  nose.  At  the  sight  of 
the  sudarium  the  Emperor  is  healed.  In  gratitude,  and  to  revenge  the  death  of  Jesus,  Jerusa- 
lem is  destroyed  by  the  Romans  ;  who  finding  the  four  soldiers  who  divided  the  robe  of  our 
Lord,  cut  them  in  four  pieces,  and  the  others  who  took  part  in  His  death  were  sold  for  thirty 
pence.— ///i/.  of  Oui-  Lor,l,  vol.  i.,  p.  41.  '  Aurea  I.egcniia. 


The  True  Cross 


129 


the  event,  being  derivetl  from  lo)iglic  (Aoj'j//i,  a  spear.  It  appears  in  a 
Syriac  MS.  of  the  eleventh  century,  altliough  the  legend  is  much  more 
ancient. 

Stephaton,  or  Calpurmut,  presented  the  sponge,  sometimes  changed 
for  a  cup,  to  our  Lord.  In  early  form,  Stephaton  carries  a  vessel  of 
vinegar.     As   Lady    Eastlake  says,  "  his   history  lias  been 

stephaton. 

ill  no  way  preserved  or  imagined,"  which  is  rather  strange 
considering  his  frequent  presence  in  painting  and  iUuniinatioiis. 

Nicodemus  we  regard  with  more  interest  than  his  represented  com- 
panions, as  having  a  more  real  identity.  To  him  is  usually,  and  always 
in  Greek  art,  assigned  the  task  of  drawing  the  nails  which  fastened  our 
Lord  to  the  cross, 
while    S. 

Nicodemus. 

John  con- 
ceals these  that  the 
mother  may  be 
spared  the  sight  of 
the  instruments  of 
torture  and  death. 
In  Italian  art  he 
often  supports  the 
body  of  Christ  in  the 
descent  from  the 
cross;  with  Joseph 
of  Arimathea  he 
bears  it  to  the  tomb 
and  afterwards  pre- 
pares spices  for  em- 
balmment. 

Joseph  of  Arim- 
athea usually  assists 

Nicodemus  Joseph  of 
in  drawing '^""^"^"■ 
the    nails   from   the 


,        J  ,     .  The  Descent  from  the  Cross.     Vmm\&meio\\\  History  0]  Our  Lord. 

hands,    and    m    sus- 
taining the  upper  part  of  the  body  both  in  its  descent  from  the  Cross 
and  in  bearing  it  to  the  sepulchre.      The  position  of  honor  was  probably 


130  History  of  the  Cross 

given  to  him  because  he  had  the  courage  to  beg  the  body  of  Jesus  from 
Pilate. 

All  these  characters,  except  Stephaton,  are  given  by  name  in  the 
Coventrj-  Mysteries. 

Lastly,  appears  Ahasuerus,  who,  according  to  the  legend,  drove  away 

our  Lord  from  his  door-post  as  He  leaned  against  it  for  support  on  His 

way    to    Calvary.      Matthew    Paris  says  that,   in    1228,   an 

Wandering  Jew. 

Armenian  archbishop  visited  the  monastery  of  S.  Albans, 
England,  and  asserted  that  he  had  known  the  man.  That  he  had  been 
Pilate's  door-keeper,  by  name  Cartaphilus,  who,  when  they  were  drag- 
ging Jesus  from  the  Judgment  Hall,  struck  Him,  bidding  him  "  Go 
faster."  Upon  which  Jesus  replied,  "  I  indeed  am  going,  but  thou  shalt 
tarry  till  I  come."  Soon  after,  being  converted,  he  was  baptized  by  the 
name  of  Joseph.  At  the  end  of  every  hundred  years  he  falls  into  a  fit  or 
ecstasy,  out  of  which  he  recovers  and  returns  to  the  same  age,  thirty 
years,  that  he  was  when  Jesus  suffered.  He  is  a  very  devout  person, 
remembers  all  the  circumstances  of  Christ's  death  and  resurrection,  the 
composing  of  the  Creed  by  the  Apostles,  etc'  It  is  idle  to  follo\\-  his 
history;  he  is  only  referred  to  because  that  "  inspired  Dutchman,"  as 
Mrs.  Jameson  calls  Rembrandt,  has  seen  fit  to  introduce  him  into  one  of 
his  etchings. 

Nothing  can  be  added  to  the  simple  majesty  of  faith  and  despair,  re- 
corded in  the  narrative  of  the  Evangelists,  of  the  penitent  and  the  im- 
The  Two  penitent  thief.      Early  art  has  represented  not  only  the  face 

Thieves.  gf  (.[^^^  one,  beaming  with  lo\'e  and  trust  turned  towards  the 

Saviour,  and  that  of  the  other  distorted  with  hate  and  malignity  and 
averted  from  him,  but  has  also  depicted  hol_\-  and  evil  angels  receiving 
the  souls  of  each. 

According  to  an  old  legend,  the  good  thief  rescued  the  Holy  Family, 
which  had  fallen  in  with  a  band  of  robbers,  on  the  way  to  Egypt. 
"  When  the  Lady  S.  Mary  saw  the  kindness  which  the  robber  did  show 
them,  she  said  unto  him,  '  The  Lord  God  will  receive  thee  to  his  right 
hand  and  grant  thee  pardon  of  thy  sins.'  Then  the  Lord  Jesus  answered 
and  said  to  his  mother,  '  When  thirty  }'ears  are  expired,  O  Mother,  the 
Jews  will  crucify  me  at  Jerusalem;  and  these  two  thieves  shall  be  with 
me  at  the  same  time  upon  the  cross.  Titus  on  ni_\-  right  hand,  and 
'  Brand,  Antiquilics  (Knight's  cd.),  vol.  iii.,  p.  192. 


The  True  Cross 


131 


Dumachas  on  my  left,  and  from  that  time  Titus  shall  go  before  me  into 
Paradise.'  "  ' 

The  spot  where  the  Holy  Family  met  the  robbers  is  still  pointed  out, 
near  Ramla,  and  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades  was  visited  as  a  pious  act 
of  pilgrimage.  In  the  Academy  of  Florence  there  is  a  fresco  represent- 
ing the  scene.'' 

These  men  are  known  by  other  names  than  those  just  given.  S. 
Xavier,  in  his  History  of  Clirist,  calls  one  Vieimus,  and  the  other  Jus- 
tinus.  The  Roman  martyrology,  and  late  tradition,  following  the 
Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  calls  the  good  thief  {Sanctus  Latro)  Dismas, 
and  the  other,  Gestas.^  According  to  that  apocryphal  legend,  the 
penitent  robber  presents  himself  "  a  miserable  figure,  carrying  the  sign 
of  the  Cross  upon  his  shoulders"  at  the  gate  of  Paradise,  and  the 
guardian  angels  admitted  him  first  into  the  regions  of  the  blessed.*  The 
even  hand  of  justice !  Paradise  on  earth,  was  lost  through  a  thief,  a  like 
criminal  must  first  enter  the  Heavenly."  S.  Jerome  awards  the  penitent 
the  palm  of  martyrdom,  and  S.  Bonaventura,  rightly  defining  a  martyr 
as  dependent  upon  two  conditions — "  a  right  will  and  a  right  cause  " — 
declares  the  first  was  wanting  in  the  Innocents,  the  second  in  the  good 
thief,  but  that  Christ  supplied  the  deficiency  in  each." 

Lady  Eastlake  says  that  "  there  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  the 
crucifixion  of  the  thieves  preceded,  in  art,  the  cruci- 
fi.xion  of  our  Lord,"  and  gives  an  example  of  Jesus 
standing,  apparently  free,  between  the  robbers 
bound  to  posts;  but  by  the  eleventh  century,  prob- 
ably much  earlier,  could  dates  be  determined,  the 
three  crosses  appear.     In  a  Syriac  MS.  in  the  Laur-  ^^■''^  '<'=P'-<=^entation  of  ihe 

Crucifixion  with  1  hieves. 

entian  Library  at   Florence  the  thieves  are  nailed  From  Jameson's  Historv  of 

to  their  crosses,  but,  usually,  they  are  represented  Our  Lor j. 

as  only  tied,  not  nailed  to  the  cross.      The  same  authoress  also  quotes  the 

'  Gospel  of  the  1)1  fancy,  chap.  viii.  '^  Legends  of  the  Madonna,  p.  234. 

^Favine  gives  a  charm  which  being  written  upon  parchment,  and  bruised  with  wine  in  a 
mortar,  will  make  criminals  condemned  to  death  insensible  to  pain.  He  adds,  "  I  never  knew 
any  who  made  proof  of  it." 

"  Iniparibits  uieritis  peiideut  trio  corpora  ramis 
IMsnias  et  Gestas,  177  medio  sedit  it7ia  potestas 
Gestas  da7ti7iatus,  Dis77ias  ad  astra  levatur." 

—  Theatre  of  Honour,  vol.  ii.,  p.  247, 
*  Gospel  of  Nicode/n  us,  chap.  xx. 
'  S.  Cyril,  Caiec.  Lect.,  xiii.,  3.  ^History  of  Our  Lord,  vol.  ii.,  p.  166. 


132  History  of  the  Cross 

traditions,  that  the  conversion  of  Dismas  was  owing  to  the  shadow  of  our 
Lord  falling  upon  him,  and  that  he  was  baptized  by  the  water  which 
flowed  from  our  Saviour's  side  when  pierced.'  This  presumes  that  the 
good  thief  was  placed  upon  the  right  side,  as  is  usually  represented  in  art, 
but  some  would  place  him  on  the  left  because  Jacob  so  crossed  his  hands 
when  he  blessed  the  children  of  Joseph.'  S.  Anselm,  by  a  figure  which 
does  not  seem  clear,  says,  the  right  thief  figured  those  who  suffered  for 
justice,  the  left,  those  who  were  pseudo-martyrs,  who  suffered  for  charity." 

Across,  said  to  be  that  upon  which  the  good  thief  expiated  his  crimes, 
is  preserved  in  the  city  of  Nicosia  in  the  island  of  Cyprus;  some  authorities 
state  that  a  part  is  in  the  Church  of  S.  Croce  in  Gerusalcmme  at  Rome.' 

There  is  a  curious  incident  connected  with  this  part  of  our  subject. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  there  lived  in  Sienna  a  man  named  Brandano. 
Brandano  the  Being  clioscn  to  pcrfomi  the  part  of  the  penitent  thief  in 
the  miracle  play  in  the  Easter  celebration,  while  suspended 
on  the  cross,  the  remembrance  of  his  past  life,  which  had  been  bad, 
moved  him  to  repentance.  He  underwent  a  severe  penance  for  several 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  he  began  to  preach  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Sienna,  prophesying  and  denouncing  in  the  streets  the  Siennese  and 
the  Florentines.  Hence  he  was  called  the  "  Fool  of  Christ."  Among 
other  vaticinations  he  foretold  the  taking  of  Rome  b_\'  Charles  V.  The 
papal  courts  being  wearied  \\ith  his  denunciations,  Clement  VH. 
ordered  him  to  be  tied  in  a  sack  and  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  Disengag- 
ing himself  he  met  the  Pope,  who  was  visiting  some  of  the  churches. 
Clement  was  affrighted  at  the  apparition  of  one  whom  he  supposed 
either  dead,  or  miraculously  delivered,  and  was  still  more  terrified  at  his 
prophecy,  "  You  have  put  me  in  a  sack,  and  God  will  sack  you."^ 
When  the  sacking  of  Rome  did  occur,  the  words  of  this  madman  were 
remembered.  On  the  same  night  on  which  Pope  Clement  died  in  Rome, 
Brandano  ran  about  the  streets  of  .Sienna  proclaiming  the  fact;  the  next 
day  his  prophetic  ravings  were  confirmed." 

'  For  fuller  accounts  see  Mrs.  Jameson's  Ltgcnds  of  the  Madonna  ;  and  Hist,  of  Our  Lord, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  166. 

''  Molanus,  Hist.  /mai;es  Sacra,  lib.  iv.,  cap  4.  '  Iliid. 

■*  Suidas  says  that  Constantine  buried  part  of  that  cross  in  the  I'orum.  Urctser,  Ve  Crtue, 
lib.  i..  cap  99.  ''  "  Voi  avete  mcsso  ncl  sacco  mc,  c  Dio  mettara  in  sacca  voi." 

'  This  man's  real  name  was  Carosi.  His  life  was  published  at  Tivoli,  printed  by  Indovidono, 
in  4to,  entitled  Fita  c  Profczie  del  Brandano  Sanese  Volgarmenic  detto  il Pazzo  di  Christo,  Red- 
dinj;,   Yesterday  and  To-day,  vol.  iii.,  p.  290. 


The  True  Cross  135 

INSTRUMENTS    OF    THE    PASSION    OF    ('KklST 

I.  The  Cross.  2.  The  nails  (four  is  the  number  to  be  preferred  as 
the  most  correct,  three  being  used  only  after  the  time  of  Cimabue). 
3.  The  thiit}'  pieces  of  silver.  4.  The  sudariuin,  or  Veronica.  5.  The 
pillar  (which  is  better  given  in  the  ancient  form,  like  that  preserved  in 
the  Church  of  S.  Praxede  in  Rome,  that  of  the  cndinary,  architecturally 
correct  proportions).  6.  The  scourges.  7.  The  hammer.  8.  The 
spear.  9.  The  reed  and  sponge.  10.  The  cock.  11.  The  lantern. 
12.  The  sword  with  which  .S.  Peter  smote  off  the  ear  of  Malchus.  13. 
The  bowl  ill  which  our  Saviour  washed  his  Apostles'  feet.  14.  Christ's 
robe  and  the  dice.  15.  The  rope  with  which  Christ  was  bound  to  the 
pillar. 

Besides  these,  the  sijidoic,  or  cloth,  in  which  our  Lord  was  wrapped. 
If  this  last  is  to  be  enumerated,  as  it  sometimes  is,  among  the  instru- 
ments of  the  Passion,  there  surely  can  be  no  reason  why  the.  paunicii  In  in 
should  not  be  also.  This  was  the  headcloth  of  the  blessed  Virgin, 
which  she  wrapped  around  the  loins  of  her  Son.  Mans  Holbein,  the 
father,  gives  a  representation  of  this  scene.  What  more  touching 
picture  of  the  exercise  of  a  mother's  last  privilege!  ' 

'  Hut.  0/  Our  Lord,  vol.  ii.,  p.  126. 


A 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE    TITLE    OF    THE    CROSS 

ND    Pilate   wrote  a  title  and  put  it  on  the  Cross.      And  it  was 

written 

in  Hebrew, 

STinn  S2'?D  «ni":  piy' 

and  Greek, 
IH'SOl'S  O  NAZ0PE02  'O  BA^IAEl'S  TON  lOTAAfON 

and  Latin," 

lEHSUS    NAZARENUS"    REX    IUD,«ORU.M. 

— John  xix..  19,  20. 

The  crime  of  the  sufferer  was  either  proclaimed  by  a  crier,  or  in- 
scribed upon  a  label  affixed  to  the  upper  limb  of  the  cross.'  This 
custom  still  exists  in  the  case  of  crucifixion  in  China,  and  in  all  execu- 
Crimesofthe  tious  in  Turkey.  As  this  label  was  not  of  perishable 
Condemned  material,  parchment,  papyrus,  or  such  like,  S.  Chrvsostom's 

Written  upon  ^  '11,' 

a  Label.  account  sccms  the  more  probable,  that  the  true  Cross  was 

discovered  by  the  title  being  fastened  to  it."  The  Syriac,  Arabic,  and 
Persian  translators  render  the  tirXov  of  S.  John  xi.x.,  19,  a  tablet;  and 
Bishop  Pearson  considers  it  the  correct  interpretation.^ 

The  Evangelists  differ  as  to  the  order  of  the  languages  in  the  super- 
scription. Probably  that  given  by  S.  John,  the  eye-witness,  is  correct. 
Order  of  '^^^'^  Hcbrew  was  written  first;  it  was  the  language  of  the 

Inscription.  countiy.  The  Greek  was  next,  as  being  familiar  to  most  of 
the  l(;okcrs-on.     The   Latin  was  necessarily  used,  because  the  sentence 

'  Gretser,  De  Crtice,  lib.  i.,  cap.  31,     Lipsius,  Dc  Crucf,  \\\>.  ii.,  cap.  11. 
'  S.  Chrysostom  on  S.  John  xix.,  19. 

'Pearson  on  the  Creed,  art.  iv.,  note,  p.  311,  eil.  1S39  ;  l.artlner,  Credibility  0/ the  Gospel, 
vol.  i.,  book  i.,  chap,  vii.,  §  10, 

134 


The  Title  of  the  Cross  135 

must  be  written  in  the  tontine  in  which  it  was  pronounced  by  the  Roman 
ruler,  and  it  was  last,  that  being  the  place  of  honor.  That  the  Hebrew 
was  first,  being  the  least  esteemed,  we  infer  from  an  accidental  observa- 
tion of  S.  Chrysostom  that  "  the  Hebrew  tongue  "  is  "a  language 
despised  by  all,  especially  the  Italians."  ' 

Early  commentators  give  a  simple  reason  for  the  triple  inscrij^tion ; 
That  it  might  be  read  by  all  of  the  bystanders,  and  also  to  show  that  our 
Saviour    by  his  sacrifice  turned  the  work  of  the  devil,  the      ,,,.    .    ^^ 

^  '  Why  in  Three 

causer  of  the  confusion  of  tongues,  against  himself.  Be-  Languages, 
sides,  they  call  our  attention  to  the  choice  of  these  languages.  That  of 
the  Romans  was  taken  because  they  were  the  most  powerful  nation  of 
the  world  ;  of  the  Greeks,  because  they  were  the  wisest  and  most  subtile  ; 
while  the  Hebrews  were  the  most  pious  and  religious.^ 

No  tittle,  however  minute,  of  matters  pertaining  to  our  Lord  is  passed 
over  by  His  early  followers,  and  therefore  they  bid  us  mark 

Order  in  which 

that  the  gospel  was  preached,  after  Christ's  deatli,  in  the    the  oospei  was 

Preached. 

same    order   in   which    His   kingship   was  proclaimed   from 

His  throne,  the  Cross;  first  to  the  Jews,  then  to  the  Greeks,  lastly  to 

the  Romans.' 

Another  thing  to  be  noted  is  the  means  by  which  the  title  was 
fastened  to  the  Cross.  One  mode  of  cancelling  a  bill,  or  sentence, 
among  the  Jews  was  by  driving  a  nail  through  the  document.  Christ 
then,  when  fulfilling  the  prophecy,  may  in  truth  be  said  literally  to 
have  nailed  our  sins  to  His  Cross." 

'  Chrysostom,  2  Tim.,  Horn.  iv. 

'■  "  These  three  tongues  were  eminent  before  all  others  :  the  Hebrew,  because  of  the  Jews  who 
gloried  in  God's  laws  ;  the  Greek,  because  the  wise  men  of  the  Gentiles  ;  the  Latin,  because  of 
the  Romans,  at  that  time  bearing  rule  over  many,  and  indeed  over  almost  all  nations." — S. 
Aug.  on  S.  John,  Horn,  xvii.,  4.  "  And  these  are  written,  because  He  is  the  author  of  all  sanc- 
tity and  purity,  which  flourished  among  the  Hebrews,  to  whom  was  given  the  divine  law;  also 
because  He  is  the  author  of  all  truth  and  wisdom,  which  flourished  among  the  Greeks  ;  also  in 
figure  because  He  is  the  author  of  all  virtue  and  power,  which  flourished  among  the  Latins  ;  for 
He  is  made  for  us  wisdom,  justice,  redemption,  and  sanctification." — S.  Bonaventura,  Collat.,  84 
on  John.  "  The  Lord  is  king  of  Philosophy,  practical  and  natural,  and  of  Theology.  The 
practical  is  figured  by  the  Roman  characters,  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  Romans  was  especially 
strong  and  powerful  in  warlike  matters  ;  by  the  Greek,  natural  Philosophy  ;  and  what  was  want- 
ing to  the  Greeks,  by  the  Hebrew,  Theology,  for  the  knowledge  of  divine  things  is  gathered 
up  in  the  Jews." — Theophylact  on  S.  John  chap.  xix. 

^  The  meaning  of  the  name  Jesus  is  well  known,  but  few  think  of  the  full  meaning  of  His 
title  "  Jesus  of  Nazareth."  Nazareth  from  V}i,  natzar,  signifies  he  watched  over,  as  a  shepherd 
his  flock  ;  he  obeyed  the  law  of  the  Lord  ;  he  protected,  defended,  as  a  vinedresser  a  vineyard  ; 
he  restrained,  as  lips  are  from  evil  ;  he  cultivated,  as  one  would  a  vine.  As  a  noun  natzar 
means  a  branch,  a  prince,  an  offspring.  ■*  Pearson  on  the  Creed. 


136  History  of  the  Cross 

When  what  was  presumed  to  be  the  true  Cross  was  discovered,  what 
became  of  the  title  ? 

In  the  lonely,  almost  unpeopled  waste  of  the  Esquiline  Hill  in  Rome, 

where  the  traveller  crushes  under  his  foot  the  dust  of  what  was  once  the 

Palatine  wealth  of  the  city,  wending  his  way  through  quiet 

^'here  the 

Presumed  Title    laues  of  \ineyards  and  olive  gardens,  marvelling  that  he  is 

is  now.  ,1  r  •  11  1  1*1  1 

withm  the  walls  of  a  city,  at  last  he  reaches  a  little  mound, 
all  that  remains  of  the  palace  dedicated  to  the  voluptuous  orgies  of  the 
boy  Emperor,  Heliogabalus.  Here,  in  a  chariot  of  gold  studded  with 
gems,  drawn  sometimes  by  abandoned  women  harnessed  instead  of 
horses,  or  banqueting  on  silver  couches,  the  air  perfumed  with  incense, 
amid  a  mimic  rain  of  roses  and  violets,  the  sensual  fool  gave  his  weak 
might  towards  corrupting  Rome.  In  place  of  circuses,  now  see  vine- 
yards. Instead  of  palaces,  now  behold  a  half-ruined  church,  founded  by 
Constantine,  A.D.  330,  at  an  expense  of  one  hundred  and  forty-three 
thousand  gold  scudi. 

As  S.  Helena  found  Mount  Calvary  polluted  by  a  temple  of  Venus, 
so  her  son  would  redeem  this  canker-spot  of  Rome,  for  this  is  the  shrine 
of  the  Title  of  the  Cross,  and  though  fifteen  hundred  years  of  war,  deso- 
lation, and  corruption  have  swept  over  it,  it  has  been  preserved  (is  it  too 
much  to  say  through  Di\ine  Providence  ?)  and  is  still  reverenced  as  Santa 
Croce  in  Gerusalemme. 

About  A.l).  720,  the  basilica  became  roofless,  and  w-as  repaired  by 
Gregory  II.  Two  hundred  years  later  the  adjoining  monastery  was  re- 
built; but  by  the  twelfth  century  it  again  became  a  ruin.  The  monks 
W'Cre  removed  to  the  Baths  of  Diocletian,  and  three  thousand  florins  were 
expended  in  building  what  is  probably  the  greater  part  of  the  present 
structure.  In  1492,  during  some  repairs  under  the  direction  of  the  Car- 
dinal Mendoza,  a  niche  was  discovered  near  the  top  of  the  apse,  closed 
Discovery  of  ^y  a  brick  front,  on  which  was  inscribed  "  Titulus  Cruris. " 
the  Title.  Within,  a  lead  coffer  was  found,  fastened  with  three  seals,' 

containing  a  piece  of  wood  about  two  inches  thick,  twelve  and  a  half 
inches  in  length,  and  eight  inches  in  breatlth.  On  this,  in  imperfect 
letters,  was  the  inscription  in   Hebrew,  Greek-,  and  Latin — JesHS   N.\ZA- 

'  Moroni,  Dictionary  of  EruJition  ;  Gerbet,  in  his  Esqidsse  dc  Rome  Chrcticmtc,  states  tliat 
on  the  se.ils  were  the  words  "  Gerard,  Cardinal  of  S.  Croce."  If  true  the  relic  was  immured  in 
the  twelfth  century  by  a  Cardinal  titular  of  this  church,  who  became  I'opc  as  Lucius  II. — 
Hemans,  Cn/lio/ic  Italy,  vol.  i.,  p.  206. 


j3 


138  History  of  the  Cross 

REXE  King.  Of  the  Hebrew,  only  mutilated  parts  of  the  characters 
remained,  enough,  however,  for  a  Rabbi  to  decipher"  Nazarene  King 
of  " — not  in  the  ancient  Hebrew  letters,  but  in  the  Syriac,  which  was 
the  vernacular  language  of  Judea  when  our  Saviour  suffered.  Since  that 
time  the  upper  portion  of  the  title  has  become  more  effaced.  Of  the 
Greek  (3aaiXevi,  only  the  initials  remain ;  while  of  the  Latin  Rex,  the 
initial  is  wanting.  The  table  was  white,  the  letters  red ;  for  all  Roman 
judicial  sentences  were  thus  inscribed,  and  enough  traces  were  visible  to 
determine  the  original  colors. 

This  relic  is  claimed  by  the  Roman  Church  as  being  the  veritable 
Title  of  the  True  Cross,  which  was  placed  for  safe  keeping  in  the  niche 
where  it  was  found  by  the  Emperor  Valentinian  HI.  in  the  fifth  century. 
The  custom  of  immuring  highly  prized  relics,  Paulinus  mentions  as  being 
common  in  his  day,  a  century  earlier. 

As  to  the  genuineness  of  the  holy  relic,  of  course  it  is  as  impossible 

to  decide  as  upon  that  of  an  intaglio  purporting  to  be  of  the  age  of 

.    Alexander.     As  in  the  case  of  the  gem,  so  in  that  of  this 

Genuineness  of  o  ' 

the  Relic.  \^\^  gf  wood,  wc  cau  at  least  say  it   bears  evident   marks  of 

great  antiquity.  Curzon  and  Lord  Mahon  '  both  think  it  the  same  as 
that  brought  by  S.  Helena  from  Jerusalem.  Strong  proofs  of  its  being 
what  it  is  represented  are  the  marks  of  carelessness,  showing  evident 
haste  in  its  preparation,  such,  for  instance,  as  giving  the  Latin  instead  of 
the  Greek  desinence  in  "  Nazarene,"  the  inversion  of  the  letter  Z  in  the 
same  word,  and  the  writing  of  all  the  inscrii)tions  from  right  to  left.  Of 
the  Hebrew,  too  little  remains  to  form  any  jutlgment,  but  the  Greek  is 
the  work  of  another  hand  than  that  which  formed  the  Latin  characters, 
or  else  one  unused  to  the  language. 

But  the  history  of  the  church  itself  is  so  interesting  that  it  must  be 

completed.      In   1744,  the  facade  was  erected,  mainly  from  the  ruins  of 

the  adjacent  temple  of  Venus.      The  columns  are  of  granite. 

Concluding 

History  of  aiid  a  rare  marble,   bigio  luiuaclicllato,   but  of  the  original 

the  Church.  ,         .     ,  .    .,  ,  ,  ,  ,  .         ,  11 

twelve  only  eight  are  now  visible,  the  others  having  been  built 
into  the  heavy  piers  which  divide  the  nave  and  aisles.  The  antique  pave- 
ment is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  the  mosaic  known  as  the  Opus  Alcxan- 
drinuni.      On  the  wiull  of  tlie  apse  is  an  exquisite  fresco  of  the  (lisco\'er_\- 

'  Curzon,  Monasteries  of  the  Levant.  M.ilion,  Hist,  of  the  Holy  Cross.  Essay  read  before 
the  Royal  .Soc.  of  Antiquaries,  Feb.  10,  1S31. 


The  Title  of  the  Cross  139 

of  the  Cross;  the  work  is  attributed  by  some  to  Perugino,  by  others  to 
rinturricchio.  On  one  side  of  the  tribune  is  a  silver  himp  burning  before 
the  chapel,  within  which  is  enshrined  the  sacred  relic;  the  floor  beneath 
is  formed  of  earth  brought  by  S.  Helena  from  Mount  Calvary.  Over 
this  shrine  is  the  inscription  forbidding  women  to  enter  except  upon  the 
festival  of  the  venerable  founder. 

In  the  last  century  the  French  Republicans  desired  to  search  the 
chapel.  After  resisting  as  long  as  he  dared,  the  Superior  gave  up  some 
of  the  keys,  but  one  was  wanting,  being  lost  or  mislaid.  The  French 
prefect,  perhaps  moved  by  some  lingering  feeling  of  reverence,  would 
not  force  the  doors,  and  the  chapel  and  its  sacred  contents  were  undis- 
turbed. 

There  are  two  facts  connected  with  Santa  Croce  which  are  interesting. 
One  is,  that  in  this  church  the  Golden  Rose  '  is  consecrated,  and  the 
other  is,  that  within  the  precincts  of  S.  Croce  was  anciently  a  basilica, 
probably  the  only  one  in  the  imperial  city  in  which  the  cause  of  a  slave 
■could  be  pleaded.  What  place  more  fitting  for  the  sanctuary  of  the  title 
of  Him  in  whom  all  are  free  ?  And  is  the  place  of  this  shrine  a  mere 
accident  ? 

'  The  Golden  Rose  dates  perhaps  from  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century.  It  is  an  ornament 
of  gold,  miisk,  and  balsam,  symbolical  of  the  Divinity,  body  and  soul  of  Christ.  It  was 
consecrated  by  the  Pope  on  the  fourth  Sunday  in  Lent.  In  the  ceremony  allusion  is  made  to  the 
fruit  of  good  works,  the  flower  of  the  field,  and  to  the  rose  and  lily  as  emblematic  of  the  Virgin. 
After  mass  it  is  carried  away  by  the  Pope,  and  if  the  intended  recipient  is  in  Rome,  it  is  pre- 
sented to  him  by  his  Holiness  himself.  In  1446,  Eugenius  sent  one  to  Henry  VI.  Henry  VIII. 
was  the  favored  recipient  of  this  gracious  gift  from  both  Julius  II.  and  Leo  X.  Charles  IX.  of 
France  received  the  Rose  from  Pius  V.  after  the  massacre  of  S.  Bartholomew.  The  latest 
instance  of  the  extension  of  this  distinguished  courtesy  was  to  Isabella,  Queen  of  Spain,  by  his 
Holiness  Pius  IX. 

A  beautiful  specimen  of  a  branch  of  a  rose-bush  literally  blooming  in  gold  is  preserved  in 
the  Hotel  de  Cluny. — Walcott,  Sacred  Arc hccology ;  Ciampini,   Vet.  Mon.,  torn,  iii.,  cap.  7. 


CHAPTER  VH 

THE   DOCTRINAL   TEACHING   OF   THE   CRUCIFIXION 

WE  should  never  forget  when  studying  the  works  of  artists,  espe- 
cially of  the  earlier  masters,  that  we  are  not  looking  upon  a 
mere  work  of  art  designed  only  to  please  the  eye.  They  were  meant 
to  teach  the  heart,  for  the  "  handmaid  of  Religion,"  as  art  has  been  called. 
Symbolism  of  "'^s  Compelled  to  do  her  office  even  when  the  artificers 
Early  Painters.  ^^^  their  own  individual  lives,  were  "  of  the  earth  earthy." 
Everything  had  its  teaching;  the  adjuncts  of  the  solemn  scene  repre- 
sented, all  imparted  this  lesson  to  those  whose  only  knowledge  of  that 
which  pertained  to  salvation  came  from  tlie  oral  teaching  of  their 
preachers;  the  not  less  forcible,  though  mute  teachers  which  hung  on 
the  walls  of  their  simple  parish  churches,  or,  graven  in  stone,  made  the 
walls  of  their  magnificent  cathedrals  eloquent.  The  sun  and  moon,  the 
presence  of  the  beloved  disciple  and  grief-stricken  mother,  the  skull  of 
the  father  of  the  human  race,  the  penitent  Magdalene,  all  told  the 
story  of  the  world  lost  and  saved  ;  enforced  the  doctrine  of  death  for  sin, 
and  life  in  the  redemption  then  being  paid.  Hence  the  ministry  of 
angels,  "  All  ministers  to  the  heirs  of  salvation,"  was  represented  not 
only  attendant  upon  their  and  our  dying  Lord,  but  upon  the  two  thies'es, 
as  types  of  the  two  classes  of  the  saved  and  lost  in  the  human  race. 

In  the  accompanying  illustration  we  ha\x-  the  youthful,  unbearded 

image  of  the  Saviour,   crowned  witli  the  crown  of  glory  by  the  Father, 

represented    by    the    hand    gi\'ing    the    Latin    benediction. 

Cross  of  Ancient  ...  i  ^  i 

Ivory,  Ninth        assisted  by  angels.      On  either  side  are  the  Sun  and  Moon, 
°"  "'^^'  each   with   the  hand   to  the  clicek,  an   ancient    form  of  ex- 

pressing grief.      On   the  right   hand  of  our  Lord   is  the  Churcli,  repre- 
sented by  a  female   figure  holding  a  triumphal   banner;  on  the  left,  tlie 

140 


MliiliMMLkliiiUii 


nmnTiTpTTTmillllllMirirTltTiTTTTr^ 
uhKMJii  l,iii-aiiliiliii|lii'|iHiiii!j(iu 


mi. 


!M;'Kii|iuii.Hll![Ji 


The  Crucifixion  (Ivory  Work  of  tlie  IXth  Century).      From  Jame&on's  History  of  Our  Lord. 

141 


142 


History  of  the  Cross 


Synagogue  with  averted  face,  holding,  probably,  a  palm-branch  in  allu- 
sion to  the  day  when  the  Jews  saluted  him  King. 

The  blessed  Mother  and  S.  John  stand  on  either  side,  each  with  the 
hand  to  the  cheek;  that  of  the  Virgin  is  covered  by  her  drapery,  an  early 
Oriental  sign  of  respect,  still  preserved  in  Italy,  where  the  ecclesiastics 
cover  their  hands  in  divers  acts  of  reverence  towards  the  Pope;  such,  for 
example,  as  receiving  the  cardinal's  hat.  The  Apostle  holds  a  scroll  in 
his  hand,  his  being  the  only  Gospel  recording  the  presence  of  himself  and 
the  Virgin  Mother  at  the  final  scenes.  Below,  are  the  old  classical 
figures  of  Ocean,  pouring  water  from  his  urn,  and  Earth  bearing  a  tree 
and  giving  suck  to  a  serpent,  Avhile  the  three  intermediate  figures  are 
supposed  to  be  typical  of  the  resurrection  from  earth  and  sea  (an  ex- 
planation not  satisfactory  to  us). 

In  place  of  the  serpent,  sonietimes  Earth,  as  mother  of  all,  nourishes 
young  children  ;  at  others  she  holds  a  small  human  figure  which  repre- 
sents darkness  over  the  earth.  Again,  between  the  figures  of  Earth 
and  Water  is  a  female  figure  with  banner  and  globe,  or  simply  draped 
with  uplifted  veil,  like  Tellus  in  the  Catacombs,  which  represents  the 
Heavens,  for  "  hea\'en  and  earth  are  full  of  thy  glory."     Sometimes  on 

the  same  level  with 


the    Church    and 


Synagogue,  on  the 


left  hand,  sits  a  fe- 
male crowned  with 
towers,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the 
emblem  of  Jeru- 
salem, while  coiled 
around  the  foot  of 
the  Cross  is  '"the 
old  serpent,"  either  lifeless,  his  head  having  already  been  crushed  by  the 
heel  of  the  seed  of  the  woman,  or  else  helplessly  gazing  upward  upon  the 
second  Adam,  as  on  the  fall  he  looked  triumphanth'  down  upon  the  first.' 
The  figures  of  Sol  antl  Lima  are  different]}-  represented.  In  some 
instances  they  arc  in  chariots,  the  first  dr.iwn   by  horses,  the  latter  by 

'  Hist,  of  Our  Lord,  vol.  ii.,   p.    146.     Some  of  this  explanation  is  unsatisfactory.     The 
symbols  will  be  better  interpreted,  we  trust,  by  future  archxologists. 


Sun  and  Moon  at  Crucifixion  (Ancient  Ivory). 
P'rom  Jameson  s  Jlistorv  of  Our  Lord. 


Doctrinal  Teaching  ol  tiic  Crucifixion  143 


oxen;  in  others  they  arc  symbolized  by  full-length  figures  with  reversed 
torches,   etc. 

By  the  eleventh  century  ;ill  these  mystic  personifications  vanish,  and 


Angels  Round  Cross  (Duccio,  Siena).     From  Jameson's  Historv  of  Our  Lord. 


Angels  Attending  the  Crucitixion(FietroCavallini,  Assisi).    From  Jameson's  History  of  Our  Lord, 

give  place  to  groups  of  passionate  angels  and  other  figures  betokening, 
if  not  a  more  earnest  faith,  a  more  realistic  one.  The  serpent  lingers  the 
longest,  being  found  even  in  modern  art. 


144  History  of  the  Cross 

The  skull  of  Adam  also  retains  its  place.  In  early  MSS.  Adam  him- 
self starts  from  his  sepulchre  and  receives  the  blood  in  a  Eucharistic 
chalice.  Sacrificial  types  are  varied.  The  pelican,  emblem  of  the  Eu- 
charist, is  placed  either  above  or  below  the  Cross;  the  \volf  suckling 
Romulus  and  Renins,  in  allusion  to  ancient  Rome,  or  an  altar  on  which 
a  red  heifer  is  being  sacrificed,  is  below  the  Cross."  The  figure  of  the 
Divine  sufferer  changes  as  has  been  noted. 

Lady  Eastlake,  in  \\Qr  History  of  Our  Lord,  has  divided  the  subject 
of  the  Crucifixion  into  various  heads:  Symbolical,  Doctrinal,  Historical, 
Legendary,  Allegorical,  and  Realistic,  with  their  subdivisions.  To  her 
work  we  refer  the  reader  for  the  full  treatment  of  the  subject  under  these 
divers  heads,  only  condensing  from  her  admirable  book  the  three  follow- 
ing descriptions. 

First,  the  Doctrinal  Crucifixion. 

The  great  scene  of  the  Atonement,  not  literally  with  the  few  true- 
hearted  believers,  the  Jews  and  the  Romans,  but  illuminated  by  "  the 
Doctrinal  light  of  fulfilled  propliccy     .      .      .     adored  by  saints. "     As 

Crucifixion.  .^,-|   instance,    this   distinguished   authoress  gives   the   great 

Crucifixion  by  Era  Angelico  da  Fiesole,  which  she  justly  calls  "  the 
highest  example  of  the  mystery  of  our  Redemption  that  the  pencil  of 
man  has  produced  for  the  edification  of  his  fellow  creatures.  It  is  in 
the  Convent  of  S.  Marco  at  Florence  ...  It  knits  together  in  one 
unexampled  whole  the  grand  Christian  idea,  from  the  earliest  glimmer- 
ings of  truth  permitted  to  the  patriarchs  of  the  old  law  to  the  joyous 
confessions  of  faith  delivered  by  the  latest  preachers  of  the  painter's  own 
brotherhood." 

The  figure  of  Christ  is  represented,  not  hanging  from  the  Cross,  but 
with  arms  extended  as  properly  carrying  out  the  idea  of  the  uni\'ersal  em- 
bracing of  the  merits  of  the  sacrifice.  The  repentant  thief,  in  "  holy 
peace,"  turns  to  Him  who  has  promised  that  he  shall  be  the  "  first 
fellow  heir  in  Paradise."  The  impenitent,  with  a  "wail  of  pain,"  averts 
his  head  from  the  "  onl)-  I'liN'sician. "  "  Below,  on  the  extreme  right, 
are  the  three  patron  saints  of  the  house  of  Medici,"  that  family  ha\ing 
presented  the  convent  to  the  (Artier  of  the  Dominicans.  S.  Lawrence, 
with  his  symbol,  the  gridiron,  at  his  sitle;  S.  Cosmo,  clasping  his  hands 
tightly,  and  S.  Damian  tunn'ng  away  in   a  burst  of  grief.     The  special 

'  Uidroii,  Cliriit.  Aw;.,  vul.  i.,  p.  343. 


146  History  of  the  Cross 

patron  saint  of  the  Convent  of  S.  Marco  kneels  with  open  Gospel  in 
hand;  next  stands  the  precursor,  S.  John  the  Baptist;  next  is  the  group 
of  the  Maries  and  the  belov-ed  disciple. 

On  the  left  of  the  Cross  kneels  the  founder  of  the  Order,  S.  Dominic 
himself.  Near  him  bows  S.  Jerome,  his  cardinal's  hat  cast  upon  the 
ground.  Above,  in  full  Episcopal  robes,  is  S.  Ambrose,  an  allusion  to 
his  noble  exercise  of  official  power  when  righteously  rebuking  the  Em- 
peror. Near  him  is  S.  Augustine;  his  pen  and  book  refer  to  his  Rules, 
which  the  Dominicians  had  adopted.  S.  Francis,  honored  with  the 
stigmata,  is  near  S.  Jerome.  Behind,  S.  Bernard  is  clasping  the  Rules 
of  his  Order  to  his  heart  as  if  offering  his  work  to  his  Lord.  S.  Bene- 
dict, who  by  self-inflicted  flagellation  strove  to  suffer  like  his  scourged 
Master,  stands  holding  his  rod.  S.  Romualdus  is  ne.xt.  The  kneeling 
Franciscan  turning  away  from  the  Cross  "  as  not  worthy  of  it  "  is  sup- 
posed to  be  either  S.  (nialbertus,  or,  perhaps,  the  painter  himself.  S. 
Peter  Martyr  and  S.  Thomas  Aquinas  complete  the  group. 

In  the  centre  of  the  semicircular  framework  is  the  typical  pelican, 
with  the  inscription,  "  Similis  factus  sum  pclicano  solitudinis," — "  I  am 
like  a  pelican  of  the  wilderness  "  (Ps.  cii.,  6).  On  either  side  are  half- 
length  figures  of  the  prophets  bearing  scrolls  inscribed  with  the  appro- 
priate prophecies. 

On  the  left,  David  presents,  ' '  ///  siti  mca  potavcrunt  iiic  accto, ' ' —  "In 
my  thirst  the)?  gave  me  vinegar  to  drink  "  (Ps.  Ixix.,  21 ). 

Jacob:  " Ad  prcdaiii  fili  mi  ascciidisti ;  j-cqiiicscciis  acciibuisti  lit 
Ico," —  "  From  the  prey,  my  son,  tlmu  art  gone  up;  he  stooped 
down,  he  couched  as  a  lion  "  (Gen.  xlix.,  g). 

Zechariah  :  "  His plagatus  sum," —     "  I  am  beaten  by  them." 
'  Daniel :  ' '  Post  licbdomadcs  vii.  et  Ixii.  occidct  Chst" —      ' '  After  seven 
and  three  score  and   two  weeks  Messiah  shall   be  cut  off"    (Dan.    ix., 
25,  26). 

Dionysius  the  Areopagitc:  "  Dciis  natnrce patitur."  This  person  is 
alluded  to  in  Acts  xvii.,  34.  It  is  related  that  being  in  Heliopolis  at  the 
time  of  the  Crucifixion,  he  noted  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  which  occurred 
at  the  death  of  Jesus,  and.  knowing  that  it  was  supernatural,  he  ex- 
claimed, "  The  God  of  Nature  suffers."  It  is  also  stated  that  in  conse- 
cjuence  of  this  phenomenon,  the  Athenians  erected  the  altar"  To  the 
Unknown  God." 


Doctrinal  Teaching  of  the  Crucifixion  147 

Isaiah:  "  Ven'  languor cs  nostras,  idem  tnlit  ct  dolor cs  nostras, " — 
"  Surely  he  hath  borne  our  griefs  and  carried  luu'  sorrows  "  (Isa.  liii.,  4). 

Jeremiah:  "  O  Vos  oinncs  qui  transitis  per  viani  attcndite  ct  vidcte  si 
est  dolor  sicut  dolor  uicus," —  "  All  ye  that  pass  by,  behold  and  see 
if  there  be  any  sorrow  like  unto  my  sorrow  "  (Lam.  i.,   12). 

Ezekiel:  "  Exaltavi  lignum  hilc"  (humile), —  "  I  bare  it  upon  my 
shoulder"  (Ezek.  xii.,  7). 

Job  :  "  Qui  det  de  canibus  ci  ut  saturem."     (Not  found). 

Erythrean  Sibyl:  "  Morte  niorietur :  Tribus  dicbus  somno  subsccpto 
et  tunc  ab  infcris  rcgrcssus  ad  hiccm  voiict  primus."  These  words  are 
considered  as  a  paraphrase  on  the  articles  of  the  descent  into  Hades  and 
ascent  to  Heaven  in  the  Nicene  Creed. 

In  the  centre  of  the  base  is  S.  Dominic,  from  whose  hands  proceeds  a 
sort  of  genealogical  tree  presenting  the  most  eminent  brethren  of  his 
Order.  On  S.  Dominic's  right  is:  i.  Pope  Innocent  V.  2.  Cardinal 
Hugo,  who  performed  the  funeral  ser^'ices  to  S.  Dominic  in  1221.  3. 
Paulas,  Patriarcha  Gradensis,  in  Florence.  4.  Antoninus,  Archbishop 
of  Florence;  he  was  alive  at  the  time  of  the  execution  of  the  work. 
5.  Jordanus  of  Germany,  the  second  General  of  the  Order.  6.  Nicolas, 
Provinciales  Portugalesis.  7.  Remigius  of  Florence.  8.  Buonianus, 
saint  and  martyr. 

On  the  left  of  S.  Dominic:  i.  Pope  Benedict  II.  2.  Cardinal 
Giovanni  of  Florence.  3.  Pietro  della  Pallude  of  France,  Patriarch  of 
Jerusalem.  4.  Albertus  Magnus.  5.  Raimond  of  Catalonia,  of  Pegna- 
forte,  the  third  General  of  the  Order,  elected  1237.  6.  Chiaro  da  Sesto 
of  Florence,  "  Provincialis  Romanus."  7.  S.  Vincent  of  Valencia, 
Predicator. "  8.  Bernard,  saint  and  martyr.  "  The  marvellous  com- 
pleteness of  this  work,"  says  Lady  Eastlake,  "  proceeding,  as  it  does,  in 
equal  proportions  from  the  Churchman,  the  Christian,  the  Monk,  and 
the  Man,  will  excuse  the  length  of  this  description.  No  other  Cruci- 
fixion is  like  it  except  in  the  mere  fact  of  the  devotional  as  opposed  to 
the  historical  character;  and  in  some  respects,  such  as  the  attitude  of 
the  Virgin,  it  forms  an  exception  to  this  class." 


PART  II. 


CHAPTER    I 


THE   CROSS   IN   EARLY   CHRISTIAN   ART 

THE  sign  of  the  cross  was  used  in  the  age  immediately  succeeding 
the  ApostoHc,  perhaps  even  in  that  time,  but  at  what  precise 
period  it  became  an  A„tiq„„y  ^f 
actual,    visible,    or  theCross. 

tangible    form    we    are    ignorant. 

TertuUian,  in  the  second  cent- 
ury, ridicules  the  accusation  of 
their  enemies,  that  the  Christians 
worshipped  the  Cross  as  an  idol ; 
thus  if  not  admitting  its  common 
use,  yet  affording  ground  for  pre- 
suming that  it  was  known  in  their 
worship.' 

At  a  very  early  period,  some 
zealots,  taking  the  words  of  S.  Paul 
literally,    "Hence-   r-.„==  i,^„r,„,-H 

J    '  L-ross  Imprinted 

forth  let  no  man  on  the  Body, 
trouble  me;  for  I  bear  in  my  body 
the  marks  of  the  Lord  Jesus  " 
(Gal.  vi.,  17),  imprinted  upon  their 
foreheads,  and  other  parts  of  their 
bodies  the  Cross,  and,  in  some  in- 
stances, probably,  the  monogram 
of  Christ.  The  heretical  Jacob- 
ites, who  rejected  water,  substi- 
tuted a  baptism  of  fire,  branding  with  a  red-hot  iron  a  cross  upon  the 

'  TerluUian,  Apology,  xvi. 


Tlie  Cross  Imprinted  on  the  Body. 
From  Gretser's  Dt-  Sajuia  Criice. 


152 


History  of  the  Cross 


cheeks  or  foreheads  of  their  proselytes."  This  was  no  new  invention. 
Among  the  ancient  Sj-rians,  Greeks,  and  other  nations  indelible  marks 
were  made  on  the  face,  or  elsewhere,  denoting  the  standing  of  the  bearer. 

The  slave  was  thus  marked  with 

ign  of  his  master,  the  soldier 

re  that  of  his  commander, 

d  the  idolater  that  of  his 

favorite  god." 

But  persecution,  and 
the  severe  canons  of  the 
Church    against    'hose 
who  needlessly  threw 
away   their    lives    through 
vainglory,  or  inordinate  zeal 
for  martyrdom,  soon  taught 
the  believers  to  add  the  wis- 
dom of   the  serpent   to  the 
harmlessness    of    the    dove ; 
and  the  sacred  symbol  was 
carefully   concealed,    with 
other  m}'steries,°  till  in   the 
fulness  of  time,  the  faith  in 
Christ    crucified,    which    its 
upholders  declared  had  long 
filled    the   ho\'el    and    the 

Christ  Represented  as  Orpheus.    From  Twining's      palace"     COuld      be     openly 
Symbols  of  Early  and  McduFval  Chyistian  Art.       proclaimed.     Hence,  even  in 

the  holes  and  dens  of  the  earth,  the  Catacombs,  where  tlie  highest  officer  in 
the  Court  and  the  lowliest  slave  knelt  side  by  side  to  celebrate  the  sacrifice 
of  their  common  Lord,  for  centuries  the  Cross  was  only  timidly  shown. 

'  Perverting  the  text,  "  He  sliall  baptize  you  with  the  Holy  (Ihost  ami  with  tire."  Matt, 
iii.,  II. 

''  Procopius  says,  "  Many  marked  tUeir  wrists,  or  their  arms,  witli  the  sign  of  the  Cross.' 
See  Rev.  xx.,  4.  Spencer,  De  Leg.  Heb.,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  20.  l.owth  on  Isaiah  xliv.,  5.  Compare 
Rev.  xiii.,  16  ;  xiv.,  g.  Julian  the  Apostate,  reviling  the  Christians,  says,  "  Ye  worship  the  wood 
of  the  Cross,  painting  figures  thereof  on  the  forehead  and  before  doors."  Tertul.,  Oxford 
Trans.,  p.  57,  note  c.  Ptolemy  Philopator  enslaved  the  Jews,  and  marked  upon  their  foreheads 
the  ensign  of  Bacchus,  an  ivy  leaf.      Hammond,  Annol.  Rev.,  xx,,  4. 

*  De  Quincey  gives  a  graphic  account  of  the  secrecy  which  the  early  Christians  were  obliged 
to  practice,  in  his  essay  on  the  Esscnes. — l/ist.  and  Crit'ual  Essays. 


The  Cross  in  Early  Christian  Art. 


153 


The  pious  believers  were  contented  to  adopt  as  a  type  of  Christ,  the 
representation  of  Orpheus,  surroundeil  by  wild  beasts  entranced  by  the 
melody  of  his  lyre,  or  the  Good  Shei)- 
herd    "  carryintr    his    lost 

Pagan  and  other 

sheep"    upon    his    shoul-  symbols 

Christianized. 

der,'  or  leaning  upon  his 
staff  (the  sj-mbol  of  the  Christian 
hierarchy  according  to  S.  Augustine), 
or  they  read  the  sacrifice  of  the  Lamb 
of  God  in  the  typical  slaying  of  Abel 
and  the  offering  up  of  Isaac.  Clearer 
tokens  the  early  Christians  required 
not,  so  they  consecrated  pagan  em- 
blems with  a  holier  significance,  and 
adopted    the    Fylfot   and   Tau    crosses 

instead   of    the 

literal  figure,  be-    Representation  of  Pan  Applied  to  Christ  as 

cause  they  were  '^'  ^°°'^  Shepherd. 

familiar  to   their 

enemies,  and  could 

persecutors.  

From  this  scrupulous  guarding  of  the  sacred 
symbol  it  lias  been  erroneously  concluded  that 
the  use  of  the  actual  cross,  or  even 
that  of  its  represented  figure,  was  un- 
known in  the  early  Church  until  a  comparatively 
late  period. 

An  authoress  of  the  highest  authority  in  art  has 
Triple  Cross,  Representing  ^^^^^  ^.j^^g  misled.     After  quoting  the  well-known 

the  Second  Person  of 

the  Trinitv  words  of  S.  Chr\^sostom  that  the  Cross 

.'■  Lady  Eastlake 

From  Twining's  .s)7/;fcA.     ^^^^  everywhere   "held   in   honor,   in    on  Early  useof 

the  Cross. 

the  highway,  on  mountains,  in  forests,  on  hills,  on  the  sea,  in 

ships,  on   islands,  on   our  beds  and  on  our  clothes,  on  our  arms,  in  our 

'  Lord  Lindsay  states  that  this  symbol  was  adopted  from  tlie  Greeks.  A  statue  of  Mercury 
carrying  a  goat  at  Tanagra  is  mentioned  by  Pausanias.  According  to  this  theory  it  is  not  the 
lost  sheep,  but  the  scape-goat  of  the  wilderness  that  our  Saviour  rescues.  Lindsay,  Christian 
Art.,  vol.  i.,  p.  41.  Dr.  King  thinks  the  emblem  represents  a  Gnostic  Anubis  with  the  double 
head,  one  human  and  the  other  that  of  a  jackal.      King,  Gnostics,  p.  201. 


From  Maitland's  Chttrch  in  the  Catacoinhs. 

ive  no  information  to   their 


Early  Use  of 
the  Cross. 


154  History  of  the  Cross 

chambers,  in  our  banquets,  on  gold  and  silver  vessels,  on  gems,  in  the  paint- 
ings of  our  walls,  on  the  bodies  of  diseased  beasts,  on  human  beings 
possessed  by  devils,  in  war  and  peace,  by  day,  by  night,  in  the  dances 
of  the  feasting,  and  the  meetings  of  the  fasting  and  praying,"  she  goes 
on  to  say,  "  that  this  was  true  in  some  sense,  there  can  be  no  question," 
but  that  ancient  objects  of  art,  as  far  as  known,  show  no  corrobation  of 
the  use  of  the  Cross  in  the  simple  form  familiar  to  us  at  any  period  pre- 
ceding or  closely  succeeding  the  words  of  S.  Chrysostom.  There  is  no 
doubt,  however,  that  the  "  so-called  monogram  of  Christ  "  was  much  used 
and  venerated  as  representing  to  the  eye  of  faith  the  sign  of  the  Cross. 

In  early  Christian  art  our  Lord  is  represented  as  free  from  bonds, 
divested  of  all  circumstances  of  suffering,  with  no  sign  of  the  "  accursed 
tree."  Faith  needed  to  be  strengthened  by  depicting  the  signs  of 
Christ's  love  and  power  as  shown  in  healing  the  sick  and  raising  the 
dead  rather  than  by  representing  the  ignominy  and  horror  of  His  suffer- 
ings as  man.  In  assuming  this  natural  repugnance  on  the  part  of 
Christians  to  use  the  Cross,  we  must  also  remember  that  the  Romans 
looked  upon  the  form  of  this  instrument  of  punishment  with  horror. 
According  to  Cicero,  "  the  very  name  of  the  Cross  was  banished  from 


the   thoughts,    eyes,    and   ears   of   a   Roman   citizen."     It  required  the 

abolitii)!!   of  the  punishment  of  crucifixion  and  the  lapse  of  generations 

before  the  "  old  ideas  connected  with  the  Arbor  Infclix  ^■a.vo. 

Arbor  Infelix. 

way  before  its  new  and  glorious  meaning,  and  the  pure 
form  of  the  Cross  emerged  to  sight,  no  longer  the  sign  of  a  horrible 
death,  but  of  the  Divine  Triumph  over  all  Death.  Returning,  there- 
fore, to  the  evidence  of  that  form  of  art  which  exists  in  greatest  abund- 
ance, namely,  coins,  we  find  the  first  appearance  of  the  simple  cross  in 
the  dignified  form  [/.  c,  the  liasta,  or  long  cross  held  erect]  on  a  coin 
issued  by  Galla  Placidia,  who  died  a.d.  451."  ' 

In  clearing  up  the  above  ermr,  it  will  be  briefly  shown  by  a  few 
examples  tliat  the  Cross  was  used  and  honored  e\'cn  in  Apostolic  days, 
and  those  of  the  Church  of  the  first  three  centuries. 

Pompeii  was  overwhelmed  with  ashes  A.D.  79.  In  one  of  the  pass- 
Crossin  agcs  of  a  ruiu  in  that  city,  known  as  the  house  of  Pansa, 

''°"'""'-  is  placed,  so  as  to  be  visible  to  the  passers-by,  a  cross  in 

bas-relief  upon  a  panel  of  white  stones.      Op[)osite,  visible  only  to  the 

'  Uist.  of  Out  Lord,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  315,  317. 


The  Cross  in  Early  Christian  Art 


155 


Early  Cross  in 
Britain. 


iadwcUci's,  is  represented  one  of  tlie  guardian  serpents,  the  Dci  Ciistodcs. 
Mazois  explains  the  whole,  that  probably  at  that  time  the  Cross  was  a 
symbol  understood  by  the  Christians  who  placed  it  among  the  symbols 
of  paganism,  to  inform  the  faithful  that  here  the  truth  had  found  an 
asylum  under  the  safeguard  of  all  the  popular  superstitions.' 

S.  Cadvan  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  Britons  in  the  third  century. 
His  monument   bears   four  crosses.     The   inscription   is  in 
Latin,  partly  in  British  characters  of  the  above  date." 

Maitland  gives  the  following  epitaph  from  the  Catacombs: 
In  the  inscription,  the  lower  arm  of  the  Cross  interferes  with  a  letter, 
compelling  the  sculp- 
tor to  change  its 
shape,  thus  showing 
that  the  Cross  was 
not  an  after-thought, 
but  contemporane- 
ous with  the  letter- 
ing. The  epitaph 
reads:  "  Lannus,  the 
Martyr  of  Christ  rests 
here.  He  suffered 
under  Diocletian. 
The  sepulchre  is  also 
for  his  successors." 
The  letters,  E.  P.  S.,  according  to  Boldetti,  stand  for  ct  postcris  si/is." 

Diocletian  reigned  from  A.U.  284-305,  nearly  one  hundred  years 
before  the  time  of  S.  Chrysostom.  The  baths  at  Rome  of  that  Em- 
peror were  built  about  the  year  302,  one  year  before  the  ]„  the  Baths  of 
persecution  began.     Forty  thousand  Christians,  it  is  stated,  D.ocietian. 

were  employed  in  that  work.  Upon  some  of  the  bricks  have  been  found 
the  sign  of  the  Cross,  supposed  to  have  been  placed  there  by  the  work- 
men." 

'  Mazois,  Les  Ruincs  de  Pompeii,  part  ii.,  p.  34,  quoted  in  Dyer's  Pompeii,  p.  321.  A 
cross,  unfinislied,  covered  witli  insulting  inscriptions  and  caricatures  has  lately  been  discovered 
in  that  city.  AV-y  York  Tribune,  March  15,  :S66.  Perhaps  what  is  supposed  to  be  the  work 
of  an  enemy  is  that  of  a  Gnostic  heretic,  like  the  Graffito  crucifix  discovered  in  Rome,  but  in 
either  case  it  shows  that  the  cross  was  a  well-known  symbol. 

''  (Eng.)  Ecclesiologist,  vol.  v.,  N.  S.,  p.  224. 

^  Maitland,  Church  in  the  Catacombs,  p.  127.  ^  Murray,  Handbook  0/  Rome,  p.  58. 


K^UMS 


156 


History  of  the  Cross 


Cross  on  Coins. 


Eusebius  also  says  that  Constantine  erected  crosses  in  the  principal 
streets  of  Rome  and  of  Constantinople,  and  in  his  palace.  Lactan- 
_     .  ,,  tius   seemincrlv  asserts  that  the  last   was,  in   fact,  a  cruci- 

Erected  by  o  -  '  ' 

Constantine.  ^y^  ' 

The  appeal  to  coins  is  still  more  unfortunate  for  Lady  Eastlake.  The 
illustration  given  in  the  margin  is  of  a  coin  of  Crispus,  son  of  Constant- 
ine and  his  wife  Fausta,  who  was  created  Cresar  A.D.  315, 
and  was  slain  nine  years  after.  The  reverse  bears  a  figure 
of  our  blessed  Lord  holding  a  plain  Cross,  "  in  the  dignified  form," 
between    two   persons,    probably    Constantine    and    Crispus.       Another 

instance  can  be  found  in  a 
medal  issued  just  after  the 
death  of  Constantine  in  A.D. 
337.  The  Cross  is  plainly 
depicted  above  the  Labarum. 
Other  examples  are  found  on 
the  coins  of  Jovian,  A.D.  363  ; 
Valentinian,  A.D.  364;  Grat- 
ianus  and  Valentinianus, 
A.D.  37S.  In  the  last  instance  the  Emperor  treads  a  serpent  under  his 
feet,   while   he   holds  a  long  cross  in  his  hand.'' 

It  has  been  a  disputed  point  who  was  the  originator  of  the  symbol, 
or  mound,  surmounted  by  the  Cross,  a  type  of  the  conquest  of  Christ 
...       ,..         over  the  world.      Ducange  gives  the  honor  to  Valentinian. 

Author  of  the  t>       & 

Mound.  Grctser  presents  a  coin    of   that   Emperor  confirming   that 

claim.  Others  trace  the  emblem  to  Jovian;  it  appears  on  the  coins  of 
Theodosius,  A.D.  375-395;  other  coins  of  this  reign  exhibit  the  Cross 
borne  as  a  sceptre  by  the  Emperor  or  held  by  the  figure  of  Victory.^ 

More  examples  might  be  given,  but  sufficient  evidence  has  been 
adduced  antedating  Galla  Placidia.  who  died  A.D.  451,  by  the  better 
part  of  a  century.  \'et,  that  about  her  time  the  world  more  freely 
reverenced  the  holy  sign  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  the  Cross 
appears  "  for  the  first  time,  distinct  and  isolated,  beside  an  epitaph,  in 
A.D.  438-'" 

'  (Kng.)  EcclesiologisI,  vol.  v.,  N.  S.,  p.  226.     Lactaiitius  died  A.D.  330. 

'  Gretser,  De  Cruce,  torn,  iii.,  IHi.  i.,  caps.  S-14. 

»  Ibid. 

'  Ilenians,  Aiicitnt  Christianity  and  Sacred  Art,  ]).  580. 


Coin  of  Crispus.      From  Gretser's  Dc-  Saiicta  Crua. 


The  Cross  in  Early  Christian  Art.  157 

It  is  sufficient  tjloi')'  to  that  empress  of  une(|iuil  fame,'  tliat  to  her  we 
are  indebted  for  the  "  first  instance  that  can  be  authenticated  "  rjf  the 
Cross    occupying  a   prominent    position    "  on    hirge    monu- 

Cross  in 

ments  of  art."  '      Her  sepulchral  chapel  is  in  the  church  of        sepulchre  of 

o  ^     X'  ■  -    1  1       -1     •  1  Galla  Placidia. 

bS.  JNazario  e  Lelso,  built  in  A.t).  440,  at  Ravenna  ;  the  dome 

is  azure  with  golden  stars,  in  the  midst  of  which  .shines  a  golden  cross. 

Fourteen  hundred  years  have  passed  since  that  dome  was  finished  ;  but  the 

cross,  uninjured,  save  by  the  ravages  of  time,  still  protects 

the  only  tomb  of  the  Ctesars  which  has  not  been  violated. 

The  mausoleum  of  Augustus  is  now  a  circus;  the  tomb  of 

Hadrian,  a  fortress;  but  the  ashes  of  Galla  Placidia,  Hon- 

orius,    and   Valentinianus   HI.    rest    beneath   the  shatlow 

of    the    first    representation    of    the   Cross    thus   exalted, 

4-111  ..         1  11  U..1  ^  ii.TiT,,     First    Coin    with 

to  hallow  not  only  a  sepulchre,  but  also  a  temple  to  HIM     „         ,       , , 

-^  '  ^  Cross,  Issued  by 

who  is  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life.  Galla    Placidia, 

The  Cross  suffered   its  mutations,  in   honor  and   dis-    J^^  Century. 

From     Jameson's 
honor.      Rufinus  says  that  ever}-  house  in  Alexandria  had      Jiishw  of  Our 

its  door-posts,  entrances,  windows,  and  walls  painted  with  '-^"'•l- 
the  holy  sign.  The  Emperors  Valens  and  Theodosius,  A.D.  427,  required 
that  every  sign  of  our  Saviour,  whether  engraved  or  depicted,  should 
be  effaced — a  bit  of  pre-Puritan  spite.  Four  years  later,  the  second 
Council  at  Ephesus  required  every  private  house  to  possess  a  Cross.  Still 
further  reverence  was  shown  to  the  Cross  by  the  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople ('■  in  TruUo  "),  which  forbade  its  being  inlaid  in  the  pavement  of  a 
church,  in  order  that  the  symbol  of  our  salvation  should  not  be  trampled 
under  foot. 

The  natural  feelings  of  love  and  veneration  soon  led  the  jirimitive 
Christians  to  adorn  with  precious  gems  and  jewels  the  symbol,  which  to 
the  world  told  only  of  shame,  io-nominy,  and  death,  but  to  _         ^  ~i 

.'  '      o  -'  '  Uemmed  oi? 

the  believers  spoke  of  redemption  and  salvation.  jeweiied Crosses.^ 

Bosio  asserts  that  the  idea  of  thus  ornamenting  the  Cross  was  derived 
from   the  salutation  which   (so  says  tradition)  S.  Andrew   uttered   when 

'  Alternately  exalted  and  degr.ided,  she  lived  to  be  a  Gothic  Queen,  a  Roman  Empre>;s, 
twice  a  ciptive  of  Barbari.in  armies.  Once  she  was  driven  twelve  miles  on  foot  amidst  the  com- 
mon herd  before  the  car  of  the  usurper,  her  first  husband's  murderer.  Literally,  her  aslic^  nre 
here  preserved,  for,  in  1577,  some  children  thrusting  a  taper  through  an  aperture  in  her  tomli, 
set  fire  to  the  vestments  clothing  the  royal  corpse,  and  all  was  consumed.  Hemans,  Ancient 
Christianity  and  Art,  pp.  356-7. 

'  Hist,  of  Our  Lord,  vol.  ii.,  p.  31S. 


158 


History  of  the  Cross 


he  first  beheld  the  instrument  of  his  niart\-rdom.      When  yet  a  long  way 
off  he  beheld  it,  and,  falling  upon  his  knees,  exclaimed.  "  Haill  Cross 

which  was  consecrated  by  the 
body  of  Christ,  and  adorned  as 
with  pearls  by  his  members."  ' 
No  early  gemmed  crosses 
have  been  preserved,  but  re- 
presentations of  them  and  of 
the  jewelled  monogram  are  fre- 
quent in  the  Catacombs  and  on 
sarcophagi.  Eusebius  also  in- 
forms us  that  Constantine  "  set 
up  the  symbol  of  the  Saving 
Passion,  formed 
of  precious 
stones. "  "  But 
such  valuable 
treasures  have 
long  since  been 
despoiled.    The 


Christ  Holding  a  Gemmed  Cross. 
From  Bosio's  La  Trioitfante  c  Gloriosa  Croce. 

is  from  the  Cat- 
acombs. It  was  carved  on  the  sarcophagus  of  Se.xtus 
Petronius  Probus,  a  Christian  officer  in  the  time  of  \^al- 
entinian  (the  latter  part  of  the  third  century),  and  \\as 
formerly  in  the  ancient  Church  of  S.  Peter.  The  figure 
(Christ  ?|,  holding  a  gemmed  cross,  stands  upon  a  struc-  .s.Pudentiana.from 
ture  of  stones  (/.  c.,  perhaps  the  Church),  in  number,  ten,     I'l^sco    in    the 

Church  of  S.  I'ud- 

probably  signifying  infinity;  from  this  base  flow  the  four     enti.ma. 
mystical  rivers  of  Paradise.'  l'™"'     Ciampini's 

„  Vctt'ra  Aloitiiiwnta. 

h-xceptmg   the   examples    in   tlie   Catacombs   and    on 
the  tombs,  the  earliest  representations  of  jewelled  crosses  that  liave  been 
preserved  are  the  mosaics  and  frescos  which  adorn  many  of  the  Italian 

'  "  Salve  Crux,  qua;  in  corpora  Chrisii  dedicata  es,  ct  ex  tnembrot  u:i:  citis  margaritis  ornaia. 
Antequam  asceiideret  Dominus,  timorem  tcrrenum  Jialniisti,  modo  vera  amorem  ecelestem  obtines, 
pro  volo  susciperis.  Si  iris  eiiim  it  Credenli/ius,  quanta  in  le  r^audia  habeas,  quanta  niunera  pre- 
parata."  13osio.  Trionfanle  Croee,  lib.  vi.,  cap.  12.  The  scene  is  represented  by  Guido  in  a 
fresco  in  ,S.  .Andrew's  Chapel,  Church  of  .S.  Gregorio,  Rome. 

'  Life  of  Constantine,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  40.  ^  Bosio,  lil).  vi.,  cap.  12. 


The  Cross  in  Early  Christian  Art.  ^59 

churches.  The  fresco  on  the  roof  of  the  apse  of  S.  I'luIciUiana,  for- 
merly assigned  to  the  time  of  Adrian  I.,  but  by  Crowe  and  Cavalcaselle 
to    the    fourth    century,    is    pronounced    the    first   in   merit 

_^  ^  _  Mosaics  in 

among    Christian    mosaics.      Seated    in    the    centre   is    tiie  churches. 

Saviour  witii  one  arm  extended,  in  tlie  other  is  an  open  book  in  s. 

•  11^  i'      7      ■  11      I  i*i'      Ti  !•  Pudentiana. 

inscribed  Conservator  licclcsiac  I  uaciitiaiuc.  bh.  rraxedis 
and  Pudentiana,  with  leafy  crowns  in  their  hands,  are  at  a  lower  level. 
In  front  are  S.  Peter  and  S.  Paul,  with  eight  other  figures;  in  the  back- 
ground, beyond  a  portico  with  arcades,  are  seen  various  stately  build- 
ings, "  one  a  rotunda,  another  a  parallelogram  with  gable-headed  front, 
recognizable  as  a  bapistry  and  basilica,  here,  we  may  believe,  in  authentic 
copy  from  the  earliest  types  of  the  period  of  the  first  Christian  Emperors. 
Above  the  group,  and  hovering  in  air,  a  large  cross,  studded  with  gems, 
surmounts  the  head  of  our  Saviour,  between  the  four  symbols  of  the 
Evangelists."  ' 

In  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  at  Rome,  decorated  with  mo- 
saics by  Sixtus  III.,  A.D.  432-440,  above  the  arch  of  triumph,  over  the 
tribune,  surrounded  by  scenes  from  the  Old  and  New  Tes-  j^  g  Maria 

taments,  is  a  medallion  on  which  is  represented  the  throne  Maggiore. 

of  God,  richly  ornamented  with  gems.  At  the  back  is  a  jewelled  cross 
resting  upon  another,  surmounted  b_v  a  crown,  from  which  flows  a  veil, 
shrouding,  as  it  were,  the  lower  cross.  Upon  the  seat  is  placed  the 
Book  of  Life  with  seven  seals.  Here  the  Cross  stands  for  Him  who 
suffered  upon  it.  Another  example,  in  which  it  has  the  same  direct 
symbolism,  is  in  S.  Maria  Cosmedin  in  the  same  city.      The  g  ,^[3^;^ 

date  of  the  mosaics  is  of  about   the  year  A.I).  553.     The  cosmedin. 

gemmed  Cross  is  placed  upon  a  royal  throne,  blazing  with  jewels.  S. 
Paul  and  S.  Peter  stand  on  either  side,  covering  their  hands  with  their 
robes  in  reverence  (a  custom  observed  in  some  ceremonies  of  the  Latin 
Church  to  this  day),  the  one  holding  a  roll,  the  other  the  keys.  It  is 
significant  that  to  S.  Paul  is  assigned  the  right  hand,  the  place  of  honor, 
while  .S.  Peter  occupies  the  left.  This  disposition  of  the  Apostles  was 
the  most  common  until  about  the  year  800,  when  the  claims  of  S.  Peter 
to  the  supremacy  were  exalted." 

'  Remans,  AncieiU  Christianity  and  Sacred  Art,  p.  495. 

^  Bosio  attempts  to  explain  this  testimony  of  S.  Paurs  supremacy  in  honor.  He  says  the 
mosaic  is  according  to  the  Greek  custom,  which  regarded  the  right  as  you  "  enter"  the  choir, 
facing  the  altar,  as  the  place  of  honor,  whereas  the  Latin  Church  held  the  right  as  you  "  go 


J3 


^1  ^^^S^H^^-^ 


The  Cross  in  Kaiiy  Christian  Art.  i6i 

Tliere  is  also  a  very  fine  mosaic  in  the  Cluirch  of  S.  Michael  the 
Archangel,  at  Ravenna,  A.I).  545,  in  which  Christ  stands  erect  holding  a 
magnificent  Latin  cross.      Bosio  gives  an  illustration  form- 

°  S.  Michael, 

erly  in  the  old   S.    Peter's,    Rome,   in  which  the  wounded  Ravenna. 

Lamb  stands  at  the   foot  of  the  Cross,    streams   of   blood      oid  s.  Peter's. 

Rome. 

flowing  from  his  breast  and   feet.'     One   of   the  latest   in- 

S.  John  Lateran. 

Stances  before  the  change  to  a  crucifi.x  is  in  the  Church  of 
S.  John  Lateran  at  Rome,  rebuilt  by  Nicholas  IV.,  A.D.  1288-94.  Part 
of  the  church  was  burned  in  1309,  but  the  mosaics  were  preserved. 
Above  the  gemmed  cross  is  the  dove,  the  symbol  of  the  Holy  Ghost 
diffusing  its  divine  influence;  believers,  typified  by  hearts  and  lambs, 
are  partaking  of  the  life-giving  streams  of  Paradise^;  below  is  tlie  holy 
Jerusalem,  the  city  of  God,  its  gate  guarded  by  an  angel;  from  ■\\ithin 
rises  the  palm  of  victory,  upon  which  is  perched  the  phoeni.x  of  immor- 
tality. About  the  same  date  is  the  exquisite  mosaic  crucifix  o\-er  the 
tribune  of  S.  Clemcnte. 

out  "  the  more  exalted.  In  other  words,  as  on  the  stage,  or  in  a  picture,  the  right  hand  of  the 
scene  of  art  is  tlie  spectator's  left.  Trionfante  Croce,  lib.  vi.,  cap.  12.  To  make  this  and  an- 
other point  clearer  we  quote  from  Marriott;  "  An  enumeration  of  all  known'  monuments  ante- 
cedent to  the  year  800  .v.D.,  in  which  the  two  Apostles  are  represented  together,  would  show  that 
in  a  very  large  majority  of  cases,  the  place  of  our  Lord's  right  liand  is  assigned  to  S.  Paul. 
If  the  rule  were  invariable  that  S.  Paul  occupied  the  one  place,  S.  Peter  the  other, 
there  would  be  some  show  of  probability  for  the  assertion,  that  in  these  early  times  the  place  of 
honor  was  not  what  it  now  is  ;  that  the  spectator  s  right,  not  the  right  hand  of  the  principal  per- 
sonage, indicated  the  place  of  precedence. —  Testimony  of  the  Catacombs,  p.  76. 

'  The  development  of  the  lamb  as  a  symbol  of  Christ  is  instructive.  In  the  Catacombs,  and 
on  ancient  sepulchres  it  stands  on  a  hill  amid  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise.  It  sometimes  l)ears 
on  its  shoulders  a  crook  and  milk-pail.  According  to  Northcote,  it  then  typifies  the  Eucharist. 
But  Walcott  says  it  then  represents  the  Good  Shepherd.  In  the  fourth  century,  its  head  is 
crowned  with  the  Cross  and  monogram.  In  the  fifth  century  the  nimbus  appears.  In  the  sixth 
it  bears  a  spear,  ending  with  a  cross,  the  emblem  of  Wisdom  according  to  Walcott,  or  else  bleed- 
ing from  five  wounds,  one  gushing  into  a  chalice.  Still  later,  it  is  girded  with  a  golden  zone  of 
Power  and  Justice  (Is.  xi.,  5),  and  bears  the  banner  Cross  of  the  Resurrection,  or  treads  upon  a 
serpent  (Rev.  xviii.,  14).  In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  it  rests  on  a  throne  amid  saints  and 
angels  as  in  the  Apocalyptic  vision. — Walcott,  Sacred  Archeology,  "  Lamb"  ;  see  also  Didron, 
Christ.  Icon. 

-  "  In  that  day  there  shall  be  a  fountain  opened  to  the  house  of  David  and  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Jerusalem,  for  sin  and  for  uncleanness  "  (Zech.  .xiii.).  Mystically  signifying,  according  to 
S.  Ambrose,  Prudence.  Temperance,  Fortitude,  and  [uslice.  De  Paradiso  ex  Gen.,  43.  Ac- 
cording to  S,  Bernard,  the  river  of  Mercy,  the  river  of  Wisdom,  the  river  of  Grace,  and 
the  river  of  Charity.  In  the  fountain  of  Mercy,  we  have  the  water  of  remission  to  wash 
away  sin  ;  in  that  of  Wisdom,  we  have  the  water  of  discretion  to  quench  our  thirst ;  in  that 
of  Grace,  the  water  of  devotion  to  water  the  fruit  of  our  good  works  ;  while  that  of  Charity 
supplies  fervent  zeal.  "Modern  Roman  archaeologists  represent  the  mound  'as  a  mountain 
not  a  rock,  and  to  it  and  the  four  streams  they  give  various  interpretations.  Mt.  Zion 
and    the   four   streams    which    flow   therefrom';    'the    four    rivers   of    Paradise  flowing   from 


The  Cross  in  liarl)-  Christian  Art.  163 

Over  the  tribune  in  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  at  Ravenna,  is  a  gemmed 
cross  placed  in  a  medallion  of  stars.  Here  the  Cross  "  is  Christ  under 
the  figure  of  the  gibbet  on  which  He  suffered,"  as  pointed  s.  Apoiiinare 
out  by  the  inscription   IXGT^\  saliis  initndi  and  the^i  and  in  ciass<=. 

,(2.  On  either  side  of  the  medallion  are  Moses  and  Elias,  showing  that 
the  scene  intend:.-d  to  be  represented  is  that  of  the  Transfiguration.  The 
number  of  the  stars  is  ninety-nine,  and  M.  Lacroi.K,  the  clcrc-iiiitional 
and  historical  correspondent  at  Rome,  thinks  that  the  number  may  be 
intended  to  refer  to  the  number  of  "  just  persons,  in  relation  to  whom 
there  is  less  joy  in  Paradise  than  at  the  conversion  of  a  single  sinner."  ' 

The  next  ornamentation  was  the  crown;  although  this  is  connected 
generally  with  the  crucifix  rather  than  the  naked  cross,  yet  it  is  more  in 
place  to  treat  of  it  here.      God   claimed  the  crown  as  an 

Crowned  Cross. 

ornament  of  honor  to  be  used  in  His  service,  commanding 
that  the  mitre  of  the  High  Priest  should  be  decorated  with  this  insignia 
of  power  (Ex.  xxxix.,  30,  31).'"  One  of  the  earliest,  if  not  the  earliest 
mention  of  a  crown  was  that  of  Rabbah,  King  of  the  Am-  Earliest  Mention 
monites — which  David  took  from  his  head  and  placed  upon  of  a  crown, 
his  own  (i  Chron.  xx.,  2).  Among  [lagan  nations  it  was  at  first  a  sacred 
emblem.  Pliny  says  that  the  ancients  had  no  crown  except  that  given  to 
the  gods."     Saturn  was  first  thus  honored  :  then  Jupiter,  after  conquering 

the  mountain  which    designates    the  Church,' — '  the  (our   streams  which  issue  from  that  one 
head  of  waters,  over  which  Peter  presides,'  etc.     Paulinus  of   Xola  gives  in  his  epislola  XII  ad 
Sfvcrtiw  a  different  interpretation,  and   one  in  accordance  with  the  Fathers  of  his  day  (fourth 
century).     In  describing  the  mosaic  vaulted  roof  of  a  church  which  he  has  built,  he  says  ; 
■  Rcgniim  el  triitinphuin  purpura  et palma  indicant: 
Petrain  siiperstat  ipse  Pelra  Ecclesia, 
Ex  qua  sonori  quattuor  fontes  meant ^ 
Evangelislre,  viva  Christi  flumina.' 

'  The  purple  and  the  palm  are  signs  of  royal  estate  and  of  triumph.  Standing  upon  a  rock 
is  He  who  is  Himself  the  Rock  of  the  Church  ;  and  from  this  go  forth  four  voiceful  streams, 
Evangelists,  the  living  Rivers  of  Christ.'  " — Marriott,   Testimony  of  the  Catacombs,  p.  82. 

One  of  the  latest  writers  on  Christian  Art  and  Symbolism,  I\ev.  R.  St.  Tyrwhitt  (who  is  en- 
dorsed by  Ruskin)  regards  the  four  streams  as  the  rivers  of  Baptism  ;  the  laml)S  represent  the 
Christian  flock,  while  the  stags  are  the  outer  Gentiles  desiring  baptism.  C/nislian  Art  and 
Syntt'otisin,  p.  123. 

'  Didron,  Christian  Iconography,  vol.  i.,  p.  397.  "  It  is  to  this  cross  surrounded  with  stars 
that  the  exclamation  of  the  Emperor  Heraclius  might  apply  :  '  O  Crux  Splendidior  cunctis 
Astris  !'  "  "  This  personification  of  Christ  is  repeated  till  the  seventh  century."  Tyrwhitt, 
Christian  Art  and  Symholisin,  p.  125. 

-  The  .\rk  of  the  Covenant,  Ex.  xxv.,  11  ;  The  Table  of  Shew  Bread,  Ex.  xxv.,  24  ;  The 
Altar  of  Incense,  Ex.  xxx.,  3,  were  commanded  to  have  a  crown  of  pure  gold,  probably  a  raised 
ornamental  border.  ^  Pliny,  lib.  xvi.,  cap.  4. 


The  Cross  in  liaiiy  Christian  Art 


l6: 


the  Titans;  Juno  wore  a  vine  branch;  Ilcraclcs  sometimes  was  garlantlcd 
with  pophir,  sometimes  with  wild  oHve,  sometimes  with  parsley;  Apollo's 
coronet  was  laurel,  and  that  of  Hacchus,  ivy';  hence  some  early  Christ- 
ians were  scrupulous 
about  the  use  of  the 
crown,  when  even  a  chap- 
let  of  herbs  or  flowers 
mitjht  be  perverted ;  but 
the  words  of  S.  Paul, 
But  we  see  Jesus  who 
was  made  a  little  hiwer 
than  the  angels 
crowned  with  glory  and 
honor;  that  he  by  the 
grace  of  God  should  taste 
death  for  every  man  " 
(Heb.  ii.,  9),  were  soon 
applied  literally  to  the 
beloved  symbol  of  our 
Lord. 

There  are  three  forms 
under  which  the  crowned 
cross  is  given.  The  first 
seems    inap-  „  , 

-I  Forms  of 

propriately    Crowned  cross. 

classed  here,  "^^^  ^''^^■ 

but  it  is  done  so  by  Gret- 
ser  and  by  Bosio ;  it  is 
simply  a  cross  surround- 
ed by  a  nimbus.  This,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  was 
the  celebrated  miracu- 
lous cross  of  S.  Thomas  in  Malabar,  which  is  spoken  of  elsewhere."  It 
is  said  that  when  Julian  the  Apostate  was  once  inspecting  the  viscera  of 
animals  for  divination,  the  Cross  thus  surrounded  appeared.      The  Em- 

'  TertiiUian.  /?<•  Corona,  vii. 

*  For  account  of  its  miraculous  change  of  color  and  dropping  blood,  see  part  iii.,  chap.  viii. 


Cross  Surmounted  by  Crown. 
From  Bosio's  Lti  Trionfatite  e  Gloriosa  Cioce. 


1 66 


History  of  the  Cross 


The  Second 
Form. 


peror's  terror  was  assuaged  by  the  augurs,  who  declared  that  the  nimbus 
was  not  a  crown  of  glory,  but  a  sign  that  the  Christian  religion  was 
bound  and  circumscribed.' 

The  second  form  also  belongs  to  the  crucifix.      In  this,  the  crown  is 

placed  abo\e  tlie  cross,  often 
held  by  a  hand, 
/.  i'.,  the  first  per- 
son of  the  Hoi}-  Trinity — as 
in  the  exquisite  mosaic  in  the 
tribune  of  San  Clemente,  at 
Rome.  Doubtless  this  mode 
of  representation  arose  from 
the  custom  of  the  triumphs 
in  Rome.  Then  the  attend- 
ant held  the  laurel  crown  above 
the  head  of  the  victorious  gen- 
eral, but  the  wreath  was  not 
permitted  to  rest  on  his  brow. 
The  third  form,  like  the 
former,  appertains  to  the  cru- 
cifix.     It  is  the  substitution  of 


Angel  Changing  Crown  of  Thorns  for  Real  Crown. 
From  Jameson's  ffisioiy  of  Our  Lord. 


a  crown  of  gold  and  gems  in  place  of  that  of  thorns.      The  symbol  of 
The  Third  humiliation  and  suffering"  exchanged  for  that  of  power  and 

'^°''^-  royalty.      This   is  one  of  the  earliest  variations.      E\-en   in 

the  Catacombs  are  instances  of  the  crown  of  thorns  exchanged  for  one 
of  flowers. 

'  ,S.  Gregory  Naz.,  Conlra  jfiilian  ;  Gretser,  Di'  Crutf,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  it. 

'  Gretser,  De  Cruct\  lib.  ii.,  cap.  il  ;  Bosio,   TrionfanU  Croct\  lib.  vi.,  cap.  ii. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   CRUCIFIX    IN    EARLY   CHRISTIAX   ART 

FROM   what   we  have  learned   respecting  the   conceahnent    of    the 
Cross  in  the  primitive  Church,  we  are  not  surprised  at  the  absence 
ofthe  crucifix  in  the  early  asjes.     There  were  reasons  for 

~  Why  the  Cruci- 

r-       n      this    omission.       Doubtless,    one   was  the  influence  of  the  fix  was  not  used 

■S*V  ""i  in  Early  Ages. 

I  rt  oUv-i '"VJewish  converts,  who  retained  their  abhorrence  of  images, 

fearing  idolatry  in  representative  art.'  Therefore,  the  Gentiles  yielded 
to  their  objections,  and  so  vigorously  was  the  rule  enforced,  that  if  a 
convert  had  been  previously  an  artist,  and  continued  in  his  handicraft 
after  his  profession  of  faith,  he  was  considered  an  apostate,  and  was 
denied  baptism.  Again,  the  same  reason  which  induced  the  early 
Christians  to  veil  the  Cross  under  such  symbols  as  the  Fylfot  and  Tau, 
because  they  were  already  familiar  to  the  pagans,  influenced  them  to 
represent  the  sacrifice  of  our  Lord  under  the  guise  of  some  well-known 
type  from  the  Old  Testament.  Another  reason,  perhaps  the  most  pow- 
erful, was  the  spirit  of  the  primitive  Church — the  spirit  of  charit}'. 
This    charity    was    shown    even    towards    the    persecutors.       The    early  .    o^^*^ 

believers  were  men  "  of  whom  it  may  be  tridy  said,  '  the  world  was  not 
worthy';  amid  mockings  and  scourgings,  bonds  and  imprisonments,  r.^  p<i;i 
destitute,  afflicted,  tormented,  tempted,  slain  with  the  sword,  stoned,  'i^^^AJn 
sawn  assunder,  not  a  thought  of  bitterness,  or  revenge  has  expressed 
itseU  in  scujjyture  or  painting  during  tlTree^ centuries — not  a  single 
instance  has  been  recorded  of  the  tortures  ancTlnartyrdoms  which  have 
furnished  such  endless  subjects  for  the  pencil  in  later  ages.      Even  the 

'  "  AH  makers  of  images  were  turned  from  their  (the  Jews)  commonwealth  ;  for  not  a 
painter  or  statuary  was  admitted,  their  laws  wholly  forbidding  them,  lest  any  occasion  should  be 
given  to  dull  men,  or  that  their  mind  should  be  turned  from  the  worship  of  God  to  earthly  things 
by  these  temptations."  Orii^en  contra  Olstis,  p.  l8i,  ed.  1638,  quoted  in  Jeremy  Taylor's 
Dissuasive  from  Poper\\  book  ii.,  sec.  6. 

167 


A 


1 68  History  of  the  Cross 

sufferings  of  Christ  are  alluded  to  merely  by  the  Cross  borne  lightly  in 
his  hand,  as  a  sceptre  of  power  rather  than  a  rod  of  affliction  ;  the  agony, 
the  crown  of  thorns,  the  nails,  the  spear,  seem  all  forgotten  in  the  ful- 
ness of  joy  brought  by  His  Resurrection.  This  is  the  theme,  Christ's 
Resurrection,  and  that  of  the  Church  in  His  person,  on  which,  in  their 
peculiar  language,  the  artists  of  the  Catacornb^  seem  never  weary  of 
expatiating.  Death  swallowed  up  in  victory,  and  the  victor  crowned 
with  the  amaranth  wreath  of  immortality,  is  the  vision  ever  before  their 
eyes,  with  a  vividness  of  anticipation  which  we  who  have  been  born  to 
this  belief  can  but  feebly  realize."  '  The  Crucified  {3ne  prayed  "  Father, 
forgive  them,"  hence  his  followers,  cherishing  the  memor\'  of  the  instru- 
ment of  his  Passion  as  a  symbol  reminding  them  of  the  altar  on  which 
the  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world  had  been  offered,  were  un- 
willing, b_\'  too  literal  a  representation  of  that  sacrifice,  to  foster  any 
feeling  that  savored  of  bitterness. 

It  was  acknowledged  by  the  early  Church  that  some  representation 
was  needed  for  the  teaching  of  truths  through  the  eye  as  well  as  through 
the  ear.  Therefore  a  symbolic  one  was  chosen,  and,  naturally,  it  was 
the  one  so  often  dwelt  upon  in  the  Scriptures^^^fEeTTamb/^  It  was  the 
type  hallowed  in  the  first  recorded  sacrifice;  oraairied  the  Paschal  sym- 
bol of  the  Saviour  in  Egypt;  foreseen — "  dumb  before  his  shearers," 
and  "  led  to  the  slaughter  " — by  Isaiah;  recognized  by  S.  John  Baptist; 
accepted  by  our  Blessed  Lord  Himself,  and  revealed,  as  standing  before 
the  throne  in  the  Day  of  Judgment,  in  the  apocalyptic  vision  of  S. 
John. 

It  cannot  be  determined  how  early  ths  symbol  was  used.      Paulinus, 

Bishop    of    Nola,    circa    A.D.    400,    says,    "  Beneath    the    bloody    Cross 

stands  Christ  in  the  form  of  a  snow-white  Lamb  consigned 

Symbol  of  the  " 

Lamband  to  uumoritcd  dcatli."      In  the  apse  of  the  old  basilica  of  S. 

the  Cross. 

Peter's  at  Rome,  founded  by  Constantine,  A.D.  334,  the 
lamb  stood  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross,  a  chalice  at  its  breast,  into  which 
probably  the  blood  was  flowing,  although  it  is  not  so  represented  in  the 
rude  engraving  of  Ciampini."  An  early  e.x'ample,  still  in  existence,  is 
in  the  Church  of  SS.  Cosma  and  Daniiano,  at  Rome,  A.D.  530.  Here 
the  lamb  is  rejKjsing  at  the  f<5ot  of  the  Cross.' 

'  Lindsay,  Christian  Art,  vol,  i.,  p.  50. 

'  Ciampini,   Ffl.  Moiii.,  torn,  iii.,  tali.  xiii.  '  Ibid.,  torn,  ii.,  tab.  xv. 


I/O  History  of  the  Cross 

The  Church,  however,  fearing  lest  in  the  simple  type  men  would 
not  sufficiently  honor  the  antitype,  decreed  in  the  Ouinsextan  Council, 
generally  known  as  that  "  in  Trullo,"  A.D.  691  :  "  That  the  representa- 
tion in  human  form  of  Christ  our  God,  who  takes  away  the  sin  of  the 
world,  be  henceforth  set  up  and  painted  in.  place  of  the  ancient  lamb."  ' 
The  lamb  was  sometimes  retained  and  added  to  the  reverse  of  the  actual 
crucifix,  as  on  the  stational  cross  of  Velletri.  In  the  Cross  of  Mayence, 
the  lamb  is  on  one  side  of  the  tree,  the  crucified  form  on  the  other. 
But  the  crucifix,  in  sculpture  or  painting,  was  known  before  this  time. 
We  are  told  that  the  palace  of  Constantine  was  adorned  with  representa- 
tions of  sacred  subjects,  including  one  of  the  Crucifixion."  Pelagius  I. 
(.\.n.  555-559),  being  charged  with  having  been  accessory  to  the  exile  of 
his  predecessor  Vigilius,  took  a  disculpatory  oath,  holding  over  his  head 
a  crucifix  and  the  Gospels.^  Venantius  Fortunatus,  about  A.D.  560, 
alludes  to  a  representation  in  relief,  probabh-  metallic: 

"  Cn/.x  hcih'Jicta  uitct  Doiiiiiim  qua  canic  prcpondity  * 

A   little   later   occurs   what   has   been    considered   the  first  authentic 

mention  of   a  crucifix,   by  Gregory  of  Tours  (Bishop  A.D.   575^595),   at 

Narbonne.      This  was  on   painted    cloth,    but,   as  we  shall 

Earliest  Mention 

of  Crucifix  Gen-    sliow,  tlicre  Were  Still  earlier  examples.      The  earliest  paint- 

erally  Received. 

ing   e.xtant  is   in   a  Syriac  Evaiigcliarinin,    date   A.D.    586, 

Earliest  Extant.  .  ^        i         •       t\  t  ■  i  i       • 

written  at  Zagba  m  Mesopotamia,  purchased  nine  centuries 
later  by  the  Medici  for  their  library  at  Florence,  where  it  is  still  pre- 
served as  one  of  the  choicest  jewels.  The  figure  of  our  Lord  is  robed 
in  a  purple  tunic  reaching  to  the  ankles,  and  sleeveless.  Among  other 
proofs  of  its  antiquity,  note  that  the  soldiers  are  not  drawing  lots,  or 
casting  ilice,  for  the  seamless  robe,  but  playing  at  Mora  with  the  fin- 
gers for  it.  This  game  is  familiar  in  Ital)-  at  the  ijresent  da\-.  On  the 
(^  cruets  of  Monza,  the  gifts  of  Gregory  the  Great  in  the  si.\th  century,  are 

exhibited  the  head  of  Christ  with  a  cruciform  nimbus,  and  a  cross  flow- 
ering. In  another  representation  of  this  time  Christ  appears  with  ex- 
tended arms,  the  cross  being  wanting,  while  the  thieves  are  bound  to 

'  Canon    82. 

'  Milman.  Hist,  of  Christhimly,  vol.  iii.,  p.  575. 

'^  Alios,  Bil'lioth.,  no.  O2,  quoted  in  Lea's  Supi-islidtni  luiJ  Forct\  p.  21.  In  the  poem  De 
Passione  Domini,  attributed  to  Lactantius  (third  and  fourth  centuries)  n  crucifix  is  described,  but 
owing  to  its  doulrtful  .authenticity  it  is  not  cited.  ■*  Carm.,  lib.  ii.,  3. 


172 


History  of  the  Cross 


stakes.'     On  the  pectoral  Cross  of  Monza,  of  the  same  period,  the  actual 
cross  is  given  in  enamel.     At  first,  the  crucifix  was  simply  sketched  in 

outline,  then  the  figure  was  painted  upon 
a  wooden  cross;  but  in  the  time  of  Leo/^ti 
III.,    in  the   ninth  centuiy,   it  became  a 
bas-relief. 

The  development  of  the  crucifix  was 
gradual.     At  first  the  bust  of  our  Lord 
was  placed  upon  the  top  of  the 
f   Cross,  as  it  appears 
TnanE?  uvigi  -lia  riiiin 
of  the  sixth  century,  in  the  Lib- 
rary of  Munich. ""     A  similar  one 
is  represented  in  the  Church  of 
S.  Stefano  at  Rome,  which  was  ,. 
probably  part  of  the  great  mar- 
ket built   by  Nero,   consecrated 
as  a  church   A.D.   467.       Ciampini  assigns 
A.D.  645  as  the  date  of  the  mosaics.' 

It  is  probable  that  the  canon  of  the 
Council"  inTrullo"  was  almost  immediate- 
crucifix  in  the  ly  obeyed,  for  Raoul  Rochette  , 
Catacombs.  assigus  the  close  of  the  seventh 
century  as  the  time  of  the  earliest  appear- 
ance  of  the  crucifix.'  The  sole  example 
found  in  the  Catacomb  of  S.  Julius  is  gen- 
erally attributed  to  this  time,  although 
Lady  Eastlake  says  it  is  by  some  considered 
to  belong  to  the  eleventh  century.     At  first,  the  figure  of  our  Lord  was 


Early  Form  of  Crucllix.     From  MS. 

of  Vlth  Century. 
F'rom  Jameson's  History  of  Our  Lord. 


'  Hisl.  of  Our  Lord.  vol.  ii.,  p.  Tfi7. 

^  Ibid.,  vol.  ii.,  p.  320.  Lady  F^astlake  gives  the  following  account  of  a  pectoral  cross, 
"which,  according  to  an  ancient  inscription  on  it,  was  presented  liy  the  Emperor  Justin  (elected 
emperor  .^.D.  519)  to  the  I'ope  of  that  period,  Gregory  II.  Here  the  Agnus  Dii.  the  Lamb 
slain  from  the  foundation  of  the  world,  stands  in  the  centre,  with  the  bust-length  figure  of  our 
Lord  in  the  act  of  benediction  occupying  the  upper  end.  Below  is  a  figure  believed  to  be  John 
the  liaptist,  while,  with  a  profane  presumption  which  only  the  abject  exaltation  of  the  Eastern 
emperors  can  account  for,  the  figures  of  Justin  and  his  wife  Flavia  Eufemia,  are  placed  at  the 
transverse  ends."  Ibid.,  p.  321.  There  is  some  mistake  here,  as  Gregory  II.  was  not  conse- 
crated until  A.I).  715. 

'  Ciampini,   /'<■/.  Mon..  vol.  ii.,  p.  11 1,  tab.  xxxii.         ■*  Rochette,  Discours,  etc.,  p.  60. 


The  Crucifix  in  Kaiiy  Christian  Art 


/J 


vested   in   a  sleeveless  tunic  extending"  imm   the   neck   to   the   feet;  but 
this  was  not  always  the  case,  as  in  an  exe[uisitc  crucifix,  once  in  posses- 
sion of  the  Hohenlohe  Siegmaringen  '  family,  the  tunic  has  sleeves.      In 
this  instance  the  Saviour  is  very  young  ;  there  are  no  wounds,  no  nails,    r   ,    ,^ij_£^    q^J 
no  siippcdancum,  nothing  to  suggest  suffering ;_  the  placid   face,   "  fairer        ^},jq-\V  ) 

the  outstretched  arms  only  speak  of 


than  the  children  of  men,' 
the  all-embracingQove) 
which  prompted  the- 
sacrifice  ;  its  awful  real- 
ity is  only  intimated  by 
the  instrument  of  the 
PaisTon,  upon  which 
the  Lord  rests.'' 
^,  |L  In  the  eighth  and 
ninth  centuries  the  feet 
are  fastened  with  nails, 
the  hands  outstretched 
as  in  the  act  of  benedic- 
tion or  prayer,  yet  gen- 
erally free.  At  times 
this    is   reversed,   the 


antl 


hands  are  fastened^jind 
the  feet,  woundless,  are 


supported  on  the  S2it>- 
pcdancuin.  The  faith- 
ful attendants,  the 
blessed  Virgin  and  S. 
John,  exhibit  fortitude 
and_submission    which 


Crucifix  Found  in  the  Catacomb  of  Pope  Julius. 
From  Jameson's  Ilistoiy  of  Our  Lord. 


mark  the  symbolic  character  of  early  art,  so  different  from  the  literal  rend- 
ering^  ofCgrLef  aiid  diespaii^ delineated  in  1  lU  r  ages;  the  sun  and  moon, 
which  often  heretofore  have  been  personified  driving  their  chariots, 
the  one  drawn  with  horses,  the  other  with  oxen,  now  appear  little  more 
than  a  radiated  orb  and  a  crescent,  their  names  frequently  written 
perpendicularly  according  to  Greek  art.      On  some  of  the  carved  ivories 

'  Hist,  of  Our  Lord,  vol.  ii.,  p.  153  ;  A'otes  and  Queries,  3d  ser.,  p.  392 
'  Hist,  of  Our  Lord,  vol.  ii..  p.  330. 


174 


History  of  the  Cross 


the  Evangelists  are  represented  on  the  ends  of  the  Cross  with  their 
winged  symbols  whispering  the  inspired  record  to  them."  On  paint- 
ings,  their  symbols  only  are   often   given,  a  practice  which  came   into 

use  about  the  sixth   cen- 
tury.    The  wound  appears 

in     the    ninth  or     tenth 
pentury ' 


sometimes  an 
J  opening  made  in  the  robe 
showing  it.  Invariably  it 
is  on  theij;ight_siEe',  for 
two  reasons;  first,  because 
that  is  the  place  of  power 
and  dignity;  second,  be- 
cause of  the  typical  allu- 
sion to  the  Church.  In 
art,  Eve  is  always  repre- 
sented as  drawn  from  the 
right  side  of  Adam,  alle- 
gorically  teaching  that  the 
Church  receives  her  life 
from  the  wounded  side 
of  her  Saviour,  thereafter 
to  be  espoused  to  him  and  become  the  mother  of  all  living."  ^ 

UntiPthe  eleven th_century   Christ  was  ahnosi_ahvays  portrayed   as_ 
i/living,   and  there  are  instances,   generall_\-   in   work  of   Byzantine  origin, 

'  Ilemans,  describing  the  ivory  diptych  presented  by  Agiltruda  to  the  monastery  of  Ram- 


Hohenlohe  Siegraaringen  Crucifix. 
Froir.  Jameson's  History  of  Oiii-  Lord. 


bano,  A.D.  8SS  and  now  preserved  in  the  Vatican,  explains  the  sun  and  moon  as  signifying  the 
divine  and  human  nature  of  Christ,  tlie  one  radiant  through  its  own,  the  other  by  reflected, 
light.  Ancient  Christianity  anil  Art,  p.  534.  Under  this  Cross  are  represented  Romulus  and 
Remus  suckled  by  the  wolf.  An  extraordinary  association,  which  our  readers  can  interpret  as 
m.iy  best  please  them.  Ilemans  thinks  it  an  allusion  to  the  victory  of  Christ  over  the  empire 
represented  in  its  traditional  origin. 

'^  The  crucifix  in  Aix-la-Chapelle,  called  that  of  Lothario,  the  son  of  Charlemagne  (died 
A.D.  855)  represents  Christ  as  dead,  with  the  wound  in  his  side.  The  short  loin  cloth,  drooping 
body,  etc.,  would  appear  evidence  of  a  later  date.  IJut  its  age  is  j^resunicd  to  be  certain.  Hist. 
0/  Our  Lord,  vol.  ii.,  p.  329. 

'  Lindsay.  Christian  Art,  vol.  i.,  p.  ,85.  I  think  that  Heywood,  somewhere  in  his  Hierarchy 
of  Angels,  refers  to  a  tradition  that  Eve  was  taken  from  the  left  side  of  Adam,  hence  in  the 
marriage  service  they  stand  "  the  man  on  the  right  hand,  and  the  woman  on  the  left."  In  the 
service  of  the  holy  Eucharist  in  the  Greek  Church,  the  priest  "stabs"  the  "holy  bread"  on  the 
right  side,  thus  recognizing  the  commonly  received  tradition.  Neale,  Eastern  Church,  Intro- 
duition,  p.  322.     Sec  also  engraving  in  King's  Greek  Church  in  h'nssia. 


The  Crucifix  in  Iiaiiy  Christian  Art 


175 


us  late  as  the  twelfth  century.  The  earliest  example  in  l)aintinc,^  that  is 
extant,  of  Christ  as  dead,  occurs  in  a  fresco  in  S.  Urbino  above  the  valley  of 
Egeria,  date  A.  D.  i  o  1 1 . '  There  are  still  earlier  instances  of  crucifixes,  among 


Back  of  tlohenlohe  Siegmaringen  Crucifix.      From  Jameson's  History  of  Our  Lord. 

which  are  two  celebrated  ones,  one  a  pectoral  cross  described  by  Cardinal 
Borgia,  another  the  cross  of  Lothario,  claimed  to  be  of  the  ninth  century." 
The  skull  at  the  foot  of__tlls -image  appears  about  this  time;  some- 
times it  represents  that  of  Adam,  in  accordance  with  the  tradition  that 

'  Hemans  places  it  aliout  A.D.  1059,  and  believes  "  that  it  is  the  most  ancient  crucifix,  as  a 
scene,  in  painting,  in  any  Italian  church.  -  Hisl.  of  Our  LoiJ,  vol.  ii.,  p.  32S. 


3sv,/| 


176 


History  of  the  Cross 


the  Cross  was  placed  over  the  resting-place  of  our  first  father,  and 
the  blood  of  the  Saviour  raised  him  to  the  second  life.  In  some  early 
work  Adam  rises  and  receives  the  blood  in  a  chalice.'     The  cup  alone 

appears   in    the   thirteenth    century. 

The  Skull  at  Foot  ^t  Other  timCS,  the  skull 

of  the  Cross.  stands  not  for  the  father 
of  all  living,  but  simply  denotes  Gol- 
gotha. "  the  place  of  a  skull,"  the 
S\-riac  for  Calvary,  "  the  place  of  the 
beheaded. " 

At  first  the  feet  of  Christ  upon 
the  Cross  \\'ere  represented  as  free. 
The  Nails.  then   bouiid,    and   then 

fastened  severally  with  a  nail."  This 
was  in  accordance  with  the  tradition 
that  S.  Helena  discovered  with  the 
Cross,  four  nails  ;  which  is  the  number 
mentioned  by  S.  Cyprian,  S.  Gregory 
of  Tours,  and  Innocent  III.  At 
Florence,  in  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries,  Cimabue  and  Margaritone  depicted  the  feet  crossed  and 
pierced  with  a  single  nail.  Jacobus  de  Voragine  also  records  this  change, 
which  Ayala,  Bishop  of  Galicia,  denounced  as  introduced  by  the  Albi- 
genses,  and  therefore  heretical.'     But  to  return  to  the  robe. 

In  the-jsleyenth  and  twelfth  centuries^the  robe  becomes  shorter^^being 

merely  a  tunic  extending  from  the  navel  to  the  knees;  in  the  thirteenth 

century  it  is  as  short  as  possible,  and  in  the  fourtsejitliMt  is 

Crucifix  in 

xithandxiith    only  a  roll  of  linen,  the  pcri::oiiiuui,  enfolding  the  loins,  a 

Centuries. 

wretched  fashion  \\hich  has  continued  to  this  day. 

'  .\n  example  of  the  fourteenth  century  given  in  Hist,  of  Our  Lord,  vol.  ii.,  p.  208.  Didron 
gives  another  example ;  In  the  Lady  Chapel  of  Beauvais,  in  a  window  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
Adam  is  depicted  rising  from  the  tomb  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross  ;  a  green  mantle  is  thrown  over 
his  head  and  around  his  loins.  His  left  hand  upholds  the  cup  receiving  the  blood.  Christ. 
Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  271.     The  color  green,  is  symbolical  of  hope,  charity,  and  regeneration. 

"  In  his  attack  on  relics,  Calvin  reckons  up  some  sixteen  or  seventeen  nails  exhibited  as 
genuine  ;  to  this  has  been  answered,  that  the  Cross  was  composed  of  several  pieces,  and  doubt- 
less many  nails  were  used,  some  of  which  have  been  preserved,  But  of  the  four  which  fastened 
the  sufferer,  one  was  thrown  by  S.  Helena  into  the  .Adriatic,  and  the  other  three,  according  to 
Curtius,  arc  preserved  at  Rome,  Milan,  and  Treves, — Dc-  Clavis  Dominicis.,  cap.  7. 

•'  Besides  this  alteration,  the  Albigenses  are  said  to  have  painted  the  blessed  Virgin  with  one 
eye,  in  derision.     Lucas,  Contra  Albigenses,  quoted  by  Jeremy  Taylor,  vol.  i.,  p.  327. 


Early  Pectoral  Crucifix. 
From  Jameson's  History  of  Our  Lord. 


The  Crucifix  in  Karly  Christian  Art 


177 


Some  artists  have  gone  still  fui'tlier  and  exhil)it(.;cl  the  revolting  spec- 
tacle of  the  image  of  the  Crucified  One  without  a  robe.'  Christ,  entirely 
Crucifix  with  njjiiii,.  is  placed  opposite  to  Eleazar  the  High  PriestTTvlTo  is 
Nude  Figure.  sacrificing  a  red  cow  without  the  camp  of  the  Hebrews  in 
expiation  of  the  sins  of  the  people.     The  man  Jesus  of  Nazareth  may- 


Cross  of  Lothario.     (IXth  Century.)     From  Jameson's  History  of  Our  Lord. 

have  had  brown  hair  as  is  generally  represented,  but  in  this,  as  in  other 
instances   of   a  symbolic    character,   owing   to    the    implied    association 

'  Didron,  Christian  Iconography,  vol.  i.,  p.  259.  The  Hon.  Robert  Curzon  asserts  that  pre- 
vious to  the  eleventh  century  the  figure  was  always  clothed  with  a  robe.  But  there  are  excep- 
tions ;  ex.  gr,  the  Cross  of  Lothario,  that  in  the  lower  church  of  San  Clemente  at  Rome,  and 
others,  which  are  only  partially  vested.  It  has  been  suggested  that  draped  figures  are  always  of 
Byzantine  origin,  and  that  the  difiiculty  of  correctly  rendering  the  nude  body,  in  the  rude  days 
of  Christian  art,  was  the  reason  for  its  being  robed.  Molanus  records  the  legendary  reason  why 
the  Greek  Church  draped  the  body.  In  a  vision  the  Lord  appeared  to  an  artist,  and  said,  "  All 
ye  are  clothed  with  various  raiment,  and  me  ye  show  naked.  Go  forthwith  and  cover  me  with 
clothing."  Not  understanding  the  vision,  the  priest  disregarded  it.  Whereupon,  the  third  day, 
Christ  visited  him  again,  and  having  scourged  him,  said,  "  Have  I  not  told  you  to  cover  me? 
Go  now  and  cover  with  clothing  the  picture  in  which  I  appear  crucified."  Molanus,  Nist.  /mag. 
Sac,  p.  420.  Lord  Lindsay  notices  as  peculiar  to  Greek  art  that  the  waist-band  is  always 
arranged  in  broad  folds  like  an  apron.      Christian  Art,  vol.  i.,  p.  91. 


1/8 


History  of  the  Cross 


between  the  two  sacrifices,  the  hair  and  beard  of  Christ  are  red.     This 
example  may  be  uniquej^ 

As  the  thirteenth  century  approaches,   the  crucifix  becomes  mo_re 
r    degraded.     There  is  not  a  shadow  of  the  truth  symbolized  when,   in 
Crucifix  in  purcr  agcs,  art  represented  Christ  as  triumphant,  even  in  his 

xiiith  Century,  luimiliat ion ,  as  a  monarch,  although  throned  upon  a  cross. 
No  longer  is  presented  the  living  sacrifice  with  outstretched  arms  eager 
to  embrace  the  world  in  His  Atonement;  the  God  who  said,  "  I  have 
power  to  lay  down  iny  life,  and  I  have  power  to  take  it  again,'"  but  we 
have  a  portraiture  of  a'clead)  man,  Jesus,  hanging  by  the  hnnds,  the  face 
haggard  with  anguish,  the  frame  emaciated  by  austerities,  attenuated 
till  every  rib  can  be  riuinbei-ed,  every  nerve  racked  with  agony,  an 
attempt  to^nfbbdy  the  words  of  the  Psalmist,  "  They  pierced  my  hands 
and  my  feet ;  I  may  tell  all  mj-  bones  "  (Ps.  xxii., 
17) — an  effort  to  realize  the  un speak able_woe_aiid 
agony  of  the  awful  deed,  without  one  glimpse 
of  the  might  and  majesty  which  illuminate  even 
the  rude  efforts  of  the  early  Christian  artists. 

Nor  was  this  portrayal  of  literal  physical  suf- 

ering  and   indignity  confined  alone  to  earth,  but 

the  "  cruel  anguish  is  even  brought 

to    sadden    heaven."" 

Cross  in  Heaven.  " 

Regardless  of  the 
second  commandment,  artists  no 
longer  timidly  represented  God  the 
heather  under  the  rex'erent  .symbol  of 
the  all-creating,  all-protecting  hand, 
but  as  an  old  man,  even  when  throned  in  glory  in  heaven,  holding  in 
his  hands  the  Cross  bearing  the  distorted  body  of  the  Son. 

'  //cnr,s  ill!  Due  d' Anjou,  p.  162.  Bibliotluque  Royale,  Paris.  Dulroii  tliinks  lliat  he  has 
seen  a  second  example  in  Bihlia  Sacra,  No.  6829.  Christian  /conog.,  vol.  i.,  p.  260.  The 
"  Red  Cow  "  brings  to  mind  a  Mohammedan  legend.  According  to  it,  the  animals  admitted 
into  Paradise  are,  the  prophet  Saleb's  camel  (which  was  born  of  a  rock.  Sale,  A'onin,  vol.  i.,  p. 
345,  note  K) ;  the  ram  which  Abraham  sacrificed  in  place  of  Isaac  ;  Moses'  rcJ coiv  whose  ashes 
he  viingled  with  the  waters  of  purifieation  (here  we  have  a  reason  for  tlie  above  tradition  alluded 
to  in  the  MS.) ;  Solomon's  ant  (which,  when  all  creatures  in  token  of  their  obedience  ti>  him, 
brought  him  presents,  dragged  before  him  a  locust,  and  therefore  was  preferred  before  all  otiicrs, 
because  it  had  brought  a  creature  so  much  bigger  than  itself);  the  Queen  of  Sheba's  parrot,  who 
carried  messages  between  her  and  Solomon;  Ezra's  (B.al.iam's?)  ass ;  Jonah's  whale  ;  Kalmir, 
the  dog  of  the  Seven  Sleepers  ;  and  Mahomet's  camel.  Thevenot,  quoted  in  Southey's  Oiiiiiiana, 
vol.  i.,  p.  15S,  '■'  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  258. 


Adam  at  Foot  of  tlie  Cross. 
From  Jameson's  History  of  Our  Lord. 


The  Crucifix  in  Kaiiy  Christian  Art  i79 

In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  the  mystic  representations 
in  crucifixions,  of  the  sun  and  moon,  earth  and  oce.ui,  churcli  and  s)-na- 
goguc,  give  phice  to  L,noups  of  angels  indulging  in  passion-  symbolism  in 
ate  grief  unworthy  of  those  blessed  beings,  who  may  be  Ancem  Art. 
supposed,  if  not  to  understand,  yet  to  have  some  insight  into  the  mys- 
tery of  God  which  they  were  then  beholding.  In  some  Crucifixions 
angels  arej;eceiving  in  chalices  the  blood  from  the  wounds.  _  A  little  later 
and  the  symbolism  of  ancient  art  was  put  aside,  and  a  female  figure  per- 
sonifying the  Church  receives  from  the  side  the  sacred  stream,  water  and 
blood,  typical  of  the  two  sacraments. 

The  treatment  of  the  crucifix  and  Crucifixion  in  later  times  is  so  well 
known  that  further  description  is  needless.  The  realistic '  has  been 
sought  for  by  the  modern  artist,  forgetful  that  perhaps  in  doing  so  he 
was  defeating  the  holy  teaching  of  art.  The  ages  which  brought  forth 
saints  and  martyrs,  were  taught  of  their  Lord's  sufferings  by  no  such 
exhibition  of  mere  anatomical  knowledge  of  an  outstretched,  pendent 
body  as  painters  and  sculptors  now  present.  There  are  some  things 
beyond  mere  digital  skill,  even  when  genius  mixes  the  colors  or  guides 
the  chisel.  As  well  might  the  artist  attempt  to  portray  the  words 
"  Eloi,  Eloi,  lama  sabachtkaiii .'  "  as  to  embody  the  Sacrifice  on  Calvary. 
The  eyes  of  this  generation  have  not  seen  it.  Men  must  be  content  to 
suggest,  as  did  the  workmen  of  old,  and  let  faith  and  love  fill  up  the 
outline.     We  must  go  back  a  little  to  take  up  the  thread  of  our  histoiy. 

In  the  earliest  authentic  representations  of  the  Crucifixion,  the 
blessed  Virgin  and  S.  John  are  present.  The  former,  usually  upon  the 
right  sideMwhich  was  turned  to  the  north),  yet  in  the  earlv 

°  The  Virgin  Mary 

example  in   the  Church  of  Monza,   already  alluded  to,   in      and  s.  John  at 

the  Cross. 

which  the  thieves  are  fastened  to  stakes  ivhilejesus^tands 

with  arms  uplifted,  yet  without  a_cross,  the  Virgin  Mother  is  upon  the 

left.     Gretser  also  refers  to  a  picture,  said  to  have  been  in  the  possession 

'  In  the  attempt  to  obtain  an  actual  representation  of  agony,  Guido  equalled  Prometheus. 
Having  bound  his  model  to  a  cross,  in  his  ecstasy  he  stablied  the  poor  wretch,  and  transferred 
his  death-throes  to  the  canvas.  Afraid  of  the  consequences,  he  fled.  After  some  days  the 
studio  was  necessarily  broken  open,  and  the  half-decomposed  corpse  and  the  painting  were  found. 
Of  course  the  artist  was  pardoned.  What  was  the  the  life  of  a  miserable  model  compared  with 
the  fame  of  the  painter? 

^  In  the  Revelations  of  the  Anchoress  of  Norwich,  Juliana,  1373,  she  says  :  "  Our  Good  Lord 
looked  down  on  the  right  side  and  brought  to  my  mind  where  our  Lady  stood  in  the  time  of  his 
Passion."     Revelations  of  Divine  Love,  etc.,  p.  58.      Rock,  Chureh  of  our  Fathers,  vol.  iii.,  pt.  i. 


I  So 


History  of  the  Cross 


of  Sophronius,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  seventh  centun-,  in  wliich 
she  is  so  placed.  It  has  been  questioned  whether  the  Virgin  and  S. 
John  ought  not  both  to  stand  on  the  left  of  the  Cross,  to  accord  with 
Ps.  cxlii.,  4:  "  I  looked  on  my  right  hand,  and  beheld,  but  there  was  no 
man  that  would  know  me." 

According  to  Mrs.  Jameson,  when  S.  Mary  stands  alone  on  the  right 
of  the  Cross,  "  She  is  the  idealized  Mater  Dolorosa,  the  cUuighter  of 
Jerusalem,  the  personified  Church  mourning  for  the  great  Sacrifice."  ' 

Modern  art,  treating  the  Crucifixion  as  a  literal,  dramatic  scene,  re- 
presents the  blessed  Virgin  as  prostrate  upon  the  ground,  overcome  with 
grief,  a  mere  human  mother;  but  such  a  position  is  unworthy  of  her 
who  was  to  be  an  example  of  faith  and  fortitude  to  the  kindred  of 
future  martyrs.  The  words  of  S.  John  are:  "  When  Jesus  therefore 
saw  his  mother  and  the  disciple  standing  b\-,"  etc.      In  this  position  is 

the  "  Blessed  among  women  " 
represented  in  the  sublime  hymn 

Stal'af  Mater  dolorosa, 
Jtt.xta  criicciii  lacrxinosa, 
Diiiii  pi-}idcbat  jilius. 

and  by  the  early  masters  S.  Mary 
is  invariably  depicted  standing,  if 
not  erect,  yet  supported  by  the 
other  Marys  as  given  by  Man- 
tegna.'' 

In  the  Italian  Cluirch,  as  devo- 
tion was  gradually  drawn  from  the 
Son  to  the  mother,  the  attention 
of  the  actors  in  the  pictures,  anil 
W  the  interest  of  the  spectators,  are 
directed  more  especially  to  her. 
-^  Yet  while  the  intention  is  to  exalt 
her  as  divine,  the  weakness  of  her 
humanity  is  presented  ;  for  the 
blessed  mother,  uinnindful  of  the  prophetic  warnings  that  a  swortl  would 
pass  through  her  own  breast,  forgetful  of  the  celestial  power  which  she 


Mary  at  the  Cross 
From  Jameson's  Legends  of  tlic  Madonna 


'  Legends  of  the  Madonna,  p.  285. 


'Ill  tlie  I.oiivre,  Ihid.,^.  2S6. 


The  Crucifix  in  Harly  Christian  Art 


i8i 


had  seen  exhibited,  sinks  fainting,  overcome  with  maternal  anguish,  a. 
human  mother,  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross  of  her  Son. 


Earlier  artists  represent,  conventionally,  the  blessed  Virgin  and  S. 
John,  at  the  ends  of  the  transverse  of  the  Cross.  Giotto's  crucifix,  over 
the  main  entrance  of  S.  Marco's  in  Florence,  is  an  example.  It  was 
this  work,  it  is  said,  which  drew  all  Florence  to  see  it.  Dante  alludes 
to  it  in  his  Purgatory.'  We  will  note  briefly  a  few  remarkable  cruci- 
fixions and  crucifi.xes. 

■  A  few  years  ago  upon 
the  wall  of  a  cell  under- 
neath the  palace  of  the 
Cffisars  on  the  Palatine 
Hill  in  Rome,  was  dis- 
covered the  rude  sketch 
given  in  the  engra\ing. 
The  portion  of  the  plaster 
was  carefully  removed  to 
the  museum  of  the  Col- 
Icgio  Romano,  and  the 
drawing  was  at  first  pro- 
nounced to  be  a  blas- 
phemous caricature,  the 
old  story  that  the  Jews 
worshipped  an  ass,  and 
the  inscription  AAKK- 
2AMEN02  FEBE TE 
TON  QEON,  "Alexander 
worships  his  god,"  was  supposed  to  be  in  ridicule.  Mr.  King,  however, 
claims  that  it  is  the  work  of  some  deluded,  yet  pious  gnostic,  in  the  time 
of  Septimus  Severus,  or  perhaps  earlier,  for  the  bricks  are  of  the  time  of 
Hadrian.  The  gems  then  worn  as  talismans  and  signets,  show  that 
Egyptian  mythology  was  mingled  with  the  doctrines  of  the  heretical 
sects  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity.  A  frequent  symbol  on  the  in- 
taglios is  the  jackal-headed  god  Anubis,  often  bearing  the  caduceus  of 
Hermes  (which,  it  will  be  remembered,  was  formed  from  the  Egyptian 
cross,  or  Tau)  to  designate  his  office  of  conducting  departed  souls  to 

^Divine  ComeJy,  Purg.,  canto  ix..  i)I-g6. 


1  C  £  B  £  T  f 

Anubis-Christos.     From  King's  The  Gnostics. 


1 82  History  of  the  Cross 

their  final  rest  in  tlie  Pleronia;  at  other  times  holding  the  palm  of  vic- 
tory for  the  triumphing  faithful,  or  again  presiding  over  the  Psychostasia, 
or  weighing  of  the  soul,  thus  symbolizing  Christ  in  his  deliverance  of 
souls  in  Hades,  and  the  final  judgment.  Nor  is  the  first  ofifice  merely 
intimated,  but  on  some  Greek  gems,  Hermes,  armed  with  the  caduceus, 
assists  the  souls  in  Hades,  as  Christ  with  his  Cross  is  represented  by 
mediaeval  artists  delivering  souls  from  Limbus. 

The  jackal's  head  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  that  of  an  ass,  and 
we  find  it  believed  by  some  of  the  heathen,  that  the  new  sect — "  which 
they  heard  everywhere  spoken  against," — did  worship  such  a  deity. 
Tertullian  writes:  "  For  some  of  you  have  dreamed  of  an  ass's  head 
being  our  God  ;  a  suspicion  of  this  sort  Cornelius  Tacitus  hath  introduced 
but  now  a  new  report  of  our  God  hath  been  lately  set  forth  in 
this  City  [Rome]  since  a  certain  wretch  hired  to  cheat  the  wild  beasts, 
put  forth  a  picture  with  some  such  title  as  this,  '  The  God  of  the  Christ- 
ians concei\-ed  of  an  ass.'  This  was  a  creature  with  ass's  ears,  with  a 
hoof  on  one  foot,'  carrying  a  book  and  wearing  a  gown."  "  The  Christ- 
ians transferred  the  charge  against  the  whole  body,  to  the  Gnostics. 
Epiphanius,  in  the  fourth  century,  asserts  that  the  Gnostic  Sabaoth  ' 
had,  according  to  some,  the  face  of  an  ass,  according  to  others,  that  of  a 
hog,   on  which  account   it  was  forbidden  to  eat  swine's  flesh.      But  in 

'  The  Empusa,  or  midday  IIec:\te,  had  one  ass's  foot. 

'  Tertulhan,  Apology,  xvi.  Seidell  conjectures  that  this  notion  arose  among  the  Gentiles 
from  the  law  enjoining  the  redemption,  with  a  lamb,  of  the  firstlings  of  an  ass,  quoted  by  Bishop 
Patrick. — Com.  on  Ex.,  xiii.,  13. 

^  "  Now  Sabaoth  being  held  by  all  these  sectaries  as  the  national  god  of  the  Jews,  it  is  very 
probable  that  in  the  same  confusion  of  two  beasts,  originated  that  belief  so  prevalent  amongst 
the  Ancients  and  quoted  by  Tacitus  {Hist.,  v.,  4),  that  the  secret  object  of  worship  so  jealously 
guarded  within  the  sanctuary  *  at  Jerusalem  was  the  image  of  this  animal  (the  wild  ass),  by  the 
guidance  of  which  they  had  relieved  their  thirst  and  distress,  Moses  having,  by  the  observation 
of  a  troop  of  them,  found  out  the  springs  that  saved  the  congregation  from  perishing  in  the 
wilderness.  Again  in  the  spurious  gospel.  T/ie  Genealogy  of  Mary,  \  tlie  cause  assigned  for  the 
death  of  Zacharius,  the  son  of  Barachias  is,  th.it  going  into  the  Temple,  he  beheld  standing 
within  the  sanctuary  a  man  with  the  face  of  an  ass  ;  and  when  he  was  rushing  out  to  cry  unto 
the  people,  '  Woe  unto  you  !  whom  do  ye  worship?'  he  was  struck  dumb  by  the  apparition. 
But  afterwards  wlien  he  had  recovered  his  speech  and  revealed  the  vision  to  the  Jews,  they  slew 
him  as  a  lilasphemer.  And  they  assign  as  the  reason  why  the  High  I'riest  had  bells  fastened 
around  the  hem  of  his  garment,  in  order  that  this  monstrous  deity  might,  by  their  tinkling,  be 
warned  of  his  approach,  and  so  have  time  to  conceal  himself." — King,  Giiostus,  p.  qi. 

*  This  story  is  connected  with  the  hclief  that  Bacchus  was  the  real  god  of  the  Jews,  for  the  ass  was  sacred  to 
Bacchus.  For  this  reason  Pliny  (cxx.\vi.)  assigns  a  curious  reason,  that  "  the  ass  was  fond  of  fennel,  a  poison  to 
all  other  beasts,  but  a  pl.int  sacred  to  the  f;od  of  wine." 

t  "This  quotation  is  preserved  by  Kpiphaniiis,  for  the  work  itself  is  entirely  lost.  It  was  ascribed  to  S. 
Matthew  and  was  taken  for  their  authority  by  the  Collyridians,  so-called  from  their  sacrificing  cakes  to  the  Virgin 
Mary.     .  The />/>7/f  a/ jl/rtr_j',  still  extant,  is  of  a  totally  different  character." 


The  Crucifix  in  li!arly  Christian  Art  183 

whatever  sjjirit  this  rude  grciffito  was  made,  it  is  a  valuable  testiiiiDiiy  to 
the  belief  of  the  Church  in  the  second  and  third  century  in  the  ])i\inity 
of  Christ.  Even  if,  as  at  first  supposed,  it  is  the  work  of  a  heathen,  in 
contempt  of  Christianity,  yet  it  is  an  evidence  that  Christians  acknow- 
ledged and  worshipped  Christ  as  God.  And  when  the  heathen  traditions 
are  read,  they  testify  that  the  Christ  whom  the  Jews  crucified  was  iden- 
tical with  their  God  who  was  worshipped  in  the  temple,  (if  whom  the 
heathen  blasphemously  reported  he  had  the  head  of  an  ass. 

One  of  the  earliest,  perhaps  the  earliest,  representations  of  the  Cruci- 
fixion extant,  is  that  discovered,  in  1863,  in  the  old  Church  of  San 
Clemente  at  Rome  underneath   the  more  modern  building. 

Crucifixion  in 

which   itself  is  ancient,  ha\'ing  been  erected  in  the   ninth  church  of 

San  Clemente. 

century.      The   Reverend   Dr.    MuUooly,   the    Prior  of   the 

Irish  Dominicans,  to  whose  zeal  we  owe  the  excavation   of  the  lower 

church,  considers  the  frescos  as  the  work  of  the  sixth  century,  516  A.D. 

The  Saviour  is  represented  as  alive,  unfastened  by  nails,  no  \Nound 
in  his  side;  the  arms  are  extended  at  right  angles  from  the  body;  the 
head,  surrounded  by  a  cruciform  nimbus,  droops  to  the  right;  tlie  beard 
is  short  and  fine,  and  the  countenance  expressesno  suffering.  The 
tablet  for  the  Title  is  affixed  to  the  Cross,  but  there  is  no  trace  of  an 
inscription,  probably  it  has  been  obliterated  by  time.  The^tumc  is 
short,  reaching  from  the  loins  to  the  knees,  a  marked  exception  to  the 
crucifixes  of  a  little  later  period.  The  blessed  Virgin  stands  with  her 
hands  extended  towards  her  son,  and  S.  John  holds  the  roll '  of  his  Gospel 
in  his  left  hand,  while  he  points  with  the  other  to  his  Divine  master. 

The  earliest  Crucifixion  in  mosaic,  on  record,  unfortunately  it  is  no 
longer  in  existence,  was  that  constructed  by  order  of  Pope  John  VII., 
A.D.    706.     Curtius^  thus  describes   it:  "  Until  lately,"  he  crucifix  in 

says,  "  it  was  to  be  seen  in  the  old  Basilica  of  S.  Peter,  in  a.d.  706. 

the  Chapel  in  which  is  preserved  the  Veronica."  Our  Lord  is  repre- 
sented  as  alive,  the  arms  extended,  but  the  hands  drooping  as  if  in  the 
act  of  benediction,  no  sig-n  of  sufferin;/,  no  wound  in  the  side.  A  sleeve- 
less  tunic  drapes  the  form  to  the  ankle,  like  the  crucifix  found  in  the 
Catacomb  of    Pope   Julian.      In   the   engraving    given   in  Ciampini,'  an 

'  The  distinction  between  the  roll  .is  a  symbol  of  a  prophet,  and  a  book,  that  of  an  apostle, 
is  not  always  marked  in  early  art. 

■■'  Ciirtius,  De  Clavis  Domiiiicis.  p,  56. 

^  Ciampini.    }'et.  Mon..  torn,  iii.,  p.  75,  tab.  xxiii. 


184  History  of  the  Cross 

angel  appears  assisting  those  saints  who  arose  from  their  graves  (here 
placed  near  the  Cross)  at  Christ's  Resurrection  (S.  Matt,  xxvii.,  52-53). 

One  of  the  oldest  crucifixes  which  has  been  handed  down  to  us,  is 
the  celebrated  Volto  Santo  at  Lucca."  According  to  tradition,  it  was 
T-K   ir  1.   e    .    carved   out   of  cedar  wood   by   Nicodemus,    who    received 

The  Volto  Santo  *' 

at  Lucca.  augelic  assistance  in  finishing  the  face.      Hence  the  name, 

"  \'olto  Santo  di  Lucca"  ;  in  medireval  Latin,  "  Viiltnin  dc  Luca,"  and 
therefore  it  is  classed  among  those  likenesses  of  Christ  whicli,  being  con- 
sidered miraculous,  were  called  Acliicropioctcs,  "  made  without  hands," 
like  the  Veronica,  the  portrait  of  Jesus  sent  by  him  to  Abgarus,  and 
those  attributed  in  part  to  S.  Luke.'  History  preserves  the  solemn 
oath  of  William  Rufus,  "  Per  viiltcin  dc  Litca,"  which  has  been  by  some 
wrongfully  translated  "  by  the  face  of  S.  Luke."  " 

This  crucifix  is  apparently  of  Byzantine  origin,  but,  according  to  its 
legend,  it  was  miraculously  brought  to  its  present  shrine  in  A.D.  782.  It 
is  preserved  in  a  temple  of  costly  marbles,  erected  by  ALatteo  Civitali  in 
1484,  within  the  Duomo  at  Lucca,  and  is  exhibited  thrice  a  year  for 
public  devotion.  Before  the  door  of  the  temple  is  suspended  a  lamp  of 
gold,  weighing  twenty-four  pounds,  a  votive  offering  of  the  Lucchese  in 
1836,  to  avert  a  visitation  of  the  cholera.  Dante  alludes  to  this  crucifix, 
when  in  the  eighth  circle  of  Malebolge  the  public  defaulters  are  punished. 

"(2/c/  //('//  ha  luogo  it  saitto  7'olto."  ^ 

From  Curtius,  who  firmly  believed  in  the  genuineness  and  authen- 
ticity of  this  crucifix,  we  condense  the  following  account:  "  Who," 
says  the  worthy  friar,  "  will  dare  to  doubt  that  Nicodemus  represented 
truly  the  Crucifixion  ?  He  who  drew  out  and  received  the  nails  in  his 
own  hands,  can  he  have  erred  who  was  so  often  embraced  with  a  sincere 
kiss  ?  Who  lavished  his  siK'cr  in  procuring  the  m_\-rrli  and  aloes  for  the 
embalming  of  Jesus  ?  And  the  Lucchese  declare  that  the}'  ha\e  received 
this  image  from  their  remote  ancestry,  as  the  work  of  the  secret,  yet 
true  belie\er. "     Describing  the  image,  Curtius  says,  "  that  the  Saviour 

'  Curtius,  Vc  Clavis  Dominicis,  \>.  38,  Bosio,  p.  685. 

'  Sabinus,  King  of  Bulgaria,  provoked  a  rebellion  by  an  aUempt  to  abolish  images.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  Iconoclastic  movement  numbers  of  artists  fled  from  Greece  to  Italy.  Gregory  II. 
opened  asylums  for  them,  and  in  the  ninth  century,  under  I'aschal  I.,  the  Eastern  school  pro- 
duced the  pictures  of  the  Madonna,  now  dark  with  age,  which  in  many  instances  are  ascribed  to 
S.  Luke.  The  Vollo  Santo  is  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  one  of  these  artists. — Walcolt.  Sacrea 
Archaology,  p.  323.  '  Divine  Comedy,  Inf..  canto  xxi. 


The  Crucifix  in  Early  Christian  Art  185 

appears  alive,  not  ciuluctl  with  tiic  pallor  of  death;  that  his  hair  and 
ISeard  were  of  a  hazel  color.  The  tunic  is  of  the  blackvvool  of  China, 
embroidered  with  the  Phrygian  needle,  which  also  added  beauty  and 
value  to  the  girdle.  The  crown  is  of  jHirg  g^qld  [doubtful  at  present] 
worthy  a  king,  and  the  sandals  encrusted  with  plates  of  the^sajme^pure 
metal.  Concerning  these  sandals,  the  following  rare  thing  is  written. 
There  was  a  certain  poor  man  who,  driven  to  extremity  by  hunger,  im- 
plored the  aid  of  the  Volto  Santo.  To  his  prayer,  the  image,  or  rather 
Christ  in  the  image,  inclined  Himself,  and  threw  to  the  beggar  his  shoe 
as  an  alleviation  to  his  great  misery.  The  poor  wretch  was  about  to 
depart  from  the  church  with  his  treasure,  but  the  keepers  of  the  temple 
in  admiration  of  the  miracle  redeemed  the  slioe  with  an  equivalent  of 
gold,  but  they  were  unable  to  return  the  sandal  to  the  foot  of  the  image, 
hence  it  is  supported  by  the  chalice."  ' 

As  there  are  many  pictures  ascribed  to  S.  Luke,  so  there  are  divers 
crucifixes  attributed  to  Nicodemus.  One  is  preserved  in  the  Duomo  of 
Palermo.       Another    \\as    formerly  at    Berytus    (Beyroot), 

■^  ^  ^        ^  "     Other  Crucifixes 

Syria.      Bishop   Jewell,    in  his  controversy  with    Harding,  Ascribed  to 

Nicodemus. 

alludes  to  the  latter,  quoting  the  tradition  that  it  was  made 
by  Nicodemus,  and  at  his  death  given  to  Gamaliel,  the  teacher  of  S. 
Paul,  and  bequeathed  in  succession  to  James,  Simon,  and  Zaccheus. 
Having  been  preserved  a  long  time  in  Jerusalem,  it  was  carried  to  Bery- 
tus, where,  being  discovered  by  the  Jews,  they  crowned  it  with  thorns, 
made  it  drink  "  esel  and  gall,"  and  "  sticke  it  to  the  heart  with  a 
speare,"  whence  "  issueth  blood  in  great  quantity;  the  powers  of 
heaven  are  shaken;  the  sun  is  darkened,  the  moon  loseth  her  light," 
etc' 

Perhaps  this  may  be  the  very  image  mentioned  in  the  second  Coun- 
cil of  Nice,  A.D.  787.  In  the  course  of  the  iconoclastic  controversy  a 
similar  miracle  is  narrated.'  Somewhere  also  in  Spain  the  Capuchins 
exhibit  a  rival  crucifi.x  as  the  only  one  made  by  Nicodemus.* 

The  genuineness  of  another  curious  crucifix  is  vouched  for  by  Frate 
Curtius.      He  says  it  was  sent  by  the  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  to  Leo  the 


'  ('iirtius,  £>c  Clavis  Doiiiiiiicis,  cap.  5. 
'Jewell,   Works,  \t.  372,  eil.  161 1. 


'  Landoii,  Manual  of  Councils.     2d  Nicea. 

*  Stirling,  Annals  of  the  Artists  of  Spain,  vol.  i. ,  p.  24  ;  see  also  infra,  part  iii. ,  chap.  \iii., 
for  other  miracles. 


i86~~  History  of  the  Cross 

Great  about  A.D.  450.  It  was  neglected  till  Sergius  I.,  690,  "  honored  it 
and  exalted  it  for  the  adoration  of  the  Roman  people  and  that  of  the 
Crucifix  sent  to    wholc  world. ' '    The  Cross  is  covered  with  plates  of  the  purest 

Leo  the  Great.        g_^j^_        g^j^^^.    ^j^^    ^j^j^.     j_    g      ,^^    ^_     ^^^    ^[^^    ..    ^^^^^^     human 

figures  representing  the  most  holy  Trinity.  On  the  right  of  the  cruci- 
fix are  S.  Paul,  S.  Mary  Cleophas,  and  the  blessed  Virgin.  On  the  left 
are  S.  Peter,  S.  Mary  Magdalene,  and  S.  John;  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross 
is  the  skull  of  death  upon  Cah^ary  which  Christ  conquered  by  dying. 
Below  are  the  two  Greek  Fathers,  SS.  Basil  and  Chrysostom,  who  over- 
threw, in  royal  and  golden  letters,  the  heretics  who  opposed  the  most 
holy  Trinity."'  It  is  needless  to  observe,  that  the  figure  of  Christ  is 
apparently  of  late  work.  As  to  the  three  figures  claimed  to  personify 
the  Trinity,  the  absence  of  the  nimbus  would  disprove  the  claims;  be- 
sides, the  P'irst  Person  was  indicated  by  the  symbol  of  the  hand  until 
the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  centur\-,  when  by  degrees  first  the  face, 
then  the  bust,  and  at  length  the  entire  person  was  displayed.'' 

In  the  Church  of  S.  Patriarcale,  once  one  of  the  principal  churches 

in    Venice,    but    now    almost    deserted,    the   tombs   of   the  many   early 

patriarchs  of  the  Queen  of  the  Adriatic    within    its  walls 

Black  Crucifix. 

forgotten,  is  also  a  curious  crucifix.  The  figure  is  draped, 
but  the  face,  which  is  visible,  is  black. '  The  effect  is  unpleasant,  yet  it 
involuntarily  recalls  to  one's  recollection  Fuller's  quaint  definition  of  a 
negro — "  The  image  of  God  cut  in  ebony."  ■" 

At  Melrose  there  was  another  crucifix  of  black  marble,  which  was 
celebrated  for  its  sanctity.  Sir  \\^alter  Scott  mentions  it  in  his  /f.r  0/ 
Black  Rood  "^^  J'^l'-"-     The  Lidy  meets  the  spirit  of  her  lover,  who  ap- 

of  Melrose.  pears  as  when  he  lived, — not  knowing  that  he  had  been  slain 

by  her  husband, — and  urges  an  interview  on  the  following  night: 

'  Ciirlius,  De  Claris  Dominicis,  p.  50. 

■  Ditlron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  210.  Lady  Eastlake  thinks  the  first  representation  of 
the  Father  under  a  human  form  occurs  in  a  M.S.  of  S.  Dunstan,  who  died  .\.\->.  90S. — Hist,  of 
Our  /.on/,  vol.  ii.,  p.  340. 

■'Webb,  Co>itiiiental  Ecclesiology.  I  largrave  Jennings  speaks  of  the  embodiment  of  Deity 
under  darkness,  and  instances  the  Virgin  and  Child  in  black  images  in  tlie  cliaptds  of  S.  IVter 
and  S.  Maria  Maggiore  at  Rome,  S.  Francisco  at  Pisa,  and  S.  Stephen  in  Genoa.  The  Rosi- 
crucians,  p.  165.  I  do  not  rememlier  a  single  one  of  them.  Perhaps  Mr.  Jennings  may  have 
seen  some  of  the  dark  pictures  ascribed  to  S.  Luke,  of  which  there  is  one  at  Scala  Santa  at 
Rome,  and  many  elsewhere  on  the  Continent. 

•*  The  King  of  the  Hervey  Islands,  part  of  Cook's  .Vrchipel.ago  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  has  a 
crucifix  painted  black,  the  gift  of  a  missionary  in  1857.  His  majesty  has  probably  the  same 
opinion  as  that  of  some  of  the  .Vfrican  tribes,  who  represent  the  devil  as  white. 


The  Crucifix  in  Harly  Christian  Art  187 

"  And  I  '11  rliain  ilit-  l)l(i<idhouiul,  and  the  warder  shall  not  sound, 
And  rushes  shall  be  strewed  on  the  stair  ; 
So  by  the  Mack  rood  stone,  and  by  holy  S.  John, 
I  conjure  thee,  ni)'  love,  to  be  there  !  " 

Tlic  potency  of  the  adjuration  is  shown  bj'  her  ghostly  lover's  confessing 
when  lie  appears  in  her  apartment, — 

'■  Jlut  I  had  not  had  ]iower  to  come  to  thy  bower, 
Had'st  thou  not  conjured  me  so."  ' 

In  Florence  are  two  rival  crucifixes,  whose  histories  are  so  well  known 
that  repetition  seems  almost  needless.  One,  now  in  the  Church  of 
Santa  Croce,  is  bv  Donatello.     The  artist  in  the  pride  of  his 

Crucifixes  of 

heart  exhibited  it  to  his  intimate  friend  Brunelleschi,  who       Donateiioand 

Brunelleschi. 

told  him  that  he  had  "  placed  a  peasant  upon  the  Cross.' 
Donatello  angrily  bade  the  critic  to  excel  the  work,  if  possible.  Some 
time  after,  Brunelleschi  invited  his  friend  to  dine,  but  begged  him  to  go 
to  the  market  and  purchase  some  viands,  while  he  awaited  him  at  the 
studio.  Donatello,  having  accomplished  his  errand,  hastened  to  the 
studio,  and  opened  the  door.  Brunelleschi  had  accepted  the  challenge, 
and  the  work  stood  before  him.  Poor  Donatello  let  fall  his  apron  filled 
with  eggs  and  cheese  for  their  dinner,  and  magnanimously  exclaimed, 
To  you  is  given  the  power  of  carving  Christs,  to  ine  that  of  peas- 
ants."^ The  latter  crucifi.x  is  in  the  Church  of  S.  Maria  Novella,  but 
the  very  means  taken  for  its  preservation — it  is  under  glass — prevents  it 
from  being  seen  satisfactorily. 

'  Alinstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border.  The  superstition  that  some  evil  spirits  cannot  cross  the 
threshold  of  a  house  unless  aided  by  Imraan  power,  is  referred  to  by  Coleridge,  when  Christabel 
brings  in  Geraldine  : 

"  The  lady  sank,  belike  through  pain, 
And  Christabel  with  might  and  main 
Lifted  her  up.  a  weary  weight, 
Over  the  threshold  of  the  gate  ; 
Then  the  lady  arose  again. 
And  moved,  as  she  were  not  in  pain." 
'  Vasari,  Life  of  Donatello. 


CHAPTER    III 


MONOGRAMS   OF   OUR   LORD 


THE  monogram   of  our  blessed   Lord  was  venerated  by  the  early 
Church  equally  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  and,  like  that  sign, 
was  held  as  a    sacred    symbol    among    the    pagan    nations 

Value  and  An- 

long  before  it  was  consecrated  by  Christian  adoption.     The       tiquityofthe 

f.     .^    .    .  IT-  \  -       •!  Monogram. 

monograms  of  Usiris  and  Jupiter  Amnion   are   snnilar  to 

those  of  Christ.'     Sometimes  the  Rho  is  reversed,  or  a  circle  is  placed  in 


?     6 


Identity  of  Heathen  and  Christian  Symbols. 
From  Jennings's  T/ie  Rosicrncians. 


^ 


From  Jennings's  T/w  Hosicrucians. 

one  of  the  angles  of  the  cross.      In  a  coin  of  one  of  the  Ptolemies,  as 
previously  stated,  the  figure  is  supposed  by  Grctser  to  be  a  contraction 


X 


Dp 


5*^ 


The  Labarum. 


3 


Monogram  of  Monogram  of  the  Three  Em-         Monogram  of  the 

the  Saviour.  blems  Carried  in  the  Mysteries.  .Saviour. 

From  Jennings's  7'/it'  Rosii'yucinjis, 

of  j/j^/fTro^  ,•  i.e.,  "  good  "  or  "  benign,"  but,  he  adds,  it  ma}-  prefigure 
the  Cross  of  Christ."  In  fact,  the  character  may  be  translated  as  a 
contraction  of   various  meanings;    other  instances  of  pre-Christian   use 

'  "'KB'n^t  Cellic  Druids,  p.  127. 

''  Gretscr,  De  Crticc,  lib.  ii,  cap.  38.  The  pagans,  either  from  ignorance,  or  else  uncon- 
sciously giving  evidence  of  tlieir  kindness,  often  called  the  Christians,  Chreeslians. — Terlullian, 
ApoL,  c.  iii. 

18S 


Monograms  of  Our  Lord 


189 


might  be  given;  those  in  the  iUustration  from  Jennings'  might  be  sup- 
posed to  stand  for  Christ  Soter.  The  use  of  the  monogram  was  widely 
extended,  for  we  find  it  in  ancient  Runic  inscriptions  in  Zeahuid  and  on 
the  coins  of  the  Eastern 
caliphs.  "  It  is  not  infre- 
quently met  with  in  an- 
cient Greek  inscriptions, 
and  is  to  be  seen  on  some 
of  the  coins  of  Herod  the 
Great."  " 

For  the  principal  var- 
ieties of  the  monogram 
w  e     must       „    •  ,       r.;. 

Varieties  01  the 
search     the  Monogram. 


X'anous  Crosses  of  the  Greek  Form. 
From  Didron's  Christian  Iconoi^raphy. 


treasuries  of  early  Chris- 
tian art,  the  Catacombs, 
and  the  first  Italian  churches.  The  most  noted,  that  of  Constantine's 
Labanun,  appears  on  the  shields  of  the  soldiers  of  Justinian  and  Theo- 
dora in  the  mosaics  in  the  Church  of  S.  Apollinare  Nuovo  at  Ravenna.     As 

in  the  earl)'  Cross,  early 
Christian  writers  recog- 
nized in  it  the  mj-stical 
seal  alluded  to  by  the 
Prophet  and  the  Apostle 
(  Ezek.  ix.,  4,  6;  Re\'.  \ii., 
2,  xiv. ,  l).  Tertullian  and 
S.  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
both  allude  to  it  ;  Epiph- 
anius  and  Origen  explain 
it  as  symbolical  of  Christ's 
twofold  nature. 

Among  the  earliest  in- 


A 


CO 


R 


Greek  and  Latin  Crosses  of  Various  Forms. 
From  I')idron's  Ch>  is/inu  honogyaphy. 


stances  existing  since  the  time  of  Christ,  are  those  found 


Earliest 
Instances, 


in  the  villa  and  baths  of  Chedworth,  England.     The  mono- 
gram and  the  word  Arviri  indicate  that  the  structure  was  erected  under 

'  Jennings,    The  Rosierncians,  pp.  147,  iSo,  248. 

^  Northcote  and  Brownlow,  Rotna  Sottcrraiica,  p.  231. 


I  go  History  of  the  Cross 

King  Arviragus,  who  lived  from  the  time  of  Claudius  to  that  of  Domi- 
tian.  The  expedition  of  the  former  to  Britain  took  place  A.D.  43;  the 
latter  began  to  reign  A.D.  8r.'  Even  the  persecutor  of  the  Christians, 
Decius,   A.D.    249,  places  upon    his   coins    the  legend  BA-^ATO.'' 

As  it  was  one  of  the  earliest,  it  was  also  one  of  the  most  universal  of 
Christian  symbols,  being  engraved  upon  their  tombs,  seals,  lamps,  chal- 
,,  .        ,.  ices,  etc. ;  both  those  for  sacred  and  for  familiar  use,  a  sism. 

Universality  '  '  »  to     » 

°fu==-  the  true  meaning  of  which  was  unknown   to   their  perse- 

cutors, yet  speaking  of  love  and  mercy  to  the  initiated.  They  accepted 
it  as  a  literal  illustration  of  the  text. — "  I  saw  another  angel  ascending 
from  the  east,  having  the  sail  of  the  living  God  "  (Rev.  vii.,  2),  to  mark 
the  elect. 

One  of  the  earliest  instances  yet  found  of  its  use,  in  the  Catacombs, 
is  in  the  following  epitaph : 

Tempore  adriani  imperatoris  ma — 

RIVS  Adolescens  dvx  militvm  qvi 

satis  vixit  dvm  vitam  pro  cho 

cvm  sanguixe  consvnsit  in  pace 

tandem  qvievit  bene  merentes 

cvm  lacrimis  et  metu  posvervnt. 1.  d.  vi. 

"  In  Christ.  In  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Adrian,  IVIarius  a  young  mili- 
tary officer,  who  had  lived  long  enough,  when  with  his  blood  he  gave  up 
his  life  for  Christ.  At  length  he  rested  in  peace.  The  well-deserving 
set  this  up  with  tears  and  in  fear.  On  the  6th  Ides  of  December."  The 
last  words  and  the  i)alm  branch  attest  his  mart\'rdom.  Hadrian  reigned 
from  A.D.  115-138. 

Tyrwhitt  says'  that   "  the   monogram    ^,    or  S.   Andrew's  cross  is 

exchanged  into  the  upright  -P  in  the  majorit\-  of  inscriptions,  about  the 

end  of  the  third  century."      He  supposes  from  his  researches 

Was  the  Cross  ....  ..',„,..  r      i        ^- 

Derived  from       that      tliis  IS  tlic  origiii  iif  tlic  Christian  use  01  the  Cross  as  a 

the  Monogram.  ,      ,    ••        mm  t-,     *  •  i         .1         ^  *._•  f  a1        1    i-t 

symbol.  1  he  -P        marks  the  trrmsition    fnim  the  letter- 

inonogram  of  the  Lord's  name  to  the  symbol  which  represented  alike 
His  Person,  His  Life,  and   His  Death,  as  the  mintl   desired  to  contem- 

'  I.ysons,  Our  British  Ancestors,  p.  225.  In  the  C.itacombs  there  is  one  inscription  d;ited 
in  the  third  year  of  Vespasian,  A.u.  71.  Some  may  be  still  older.  Northcote,  Roman  Catacombs, 
p.  ly. 

''  The  same  word  is  found  on  the  staves  of  Isis  and  Osiris.      Higgins,  p.  127. 

'Tyrwhitt,  Christian  Art  and  Syiiiholisvi,  p.  124. 


Monograms  of  Our  Lord 


191 


plate  them."  This  theor_\-  may  be  true,  but  with  all  due  deference  to 
so  distinguished  an  archaeologist,  we  think,  unless  deceived  by  the 
authorities  we  have  followed,  that 
proof  has  been  given  showing  that 
the  origin  of  the  Christian  use  of 
the  Cross  as  a  symbol  was  quite 
as  early  as  the  use  of  the  mono- 
gram, if  not  earlier,  and  independ- 
ent of  it. 

In  the  library  of  the  Vatican  is 
an  exquisite  fragment  of  the  piety 
of  the  early  ages.  The  monogram 
is  enclosed  by  a  garland  of  flowers, 
and  upon  it  sits  the  dove,  symbol 
of  the  peace  with  God  purchased 
by  the  Redeemer's  death.  Such 
representations  were  common 
about  the  fourth  or  fifth  century. 
Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Nola,  who 
wrote  inscriptions  for  the  different 
parts  of  his  basilica,  placed  be- 
neath the  crowned  cross  the  w- ords, 
"  Bear  the  cross,  you  who  wish 
to  receive  the  crown."      Elsewhere    he   says,    in  allusion   to  the  same: 

"  The  labor  and  reward  of  the  saints  justly  go  together 
The  arduous  cross  and  the  crown  its  noble  recompense." 

In  the  Lapidarian  Gallen,'  in  Rome  there  is  an 
exquisite  specimen.  The  jewels  which  adorned 
the  ancient  crosses  are  represented  in  marble. 

A  reproduction  of  an  early  Christian  intaglio  is 
here  given.  A  Tau  cross  forms  part  of  the  sacred 
monogram.  Didron  thus  explains  it:  "  Christ, 
the  Son  of  God,  is  the  commencement  and  end 
of  all ;  the  A  and  D.,  the  beginning  and  end  of 
intellectual  signs,  and  by  extension,  of  intelli- 
gence itself,  and   lastly,  of  the  human  soul,  ac- 


Monogram  in  the  Lapidarian  Gallery,  Rome. 
From  Maitland's  Church  in  the  Catacombs. 


Mystic  Cross.    From  Didron's 
Christiaji  Iconography. 


company  the  cross,  on  the  right  hand  and  on  the  left.     The  Cross  has 


192  History  of  the  Cross 

crushed  Satan  the  old  serpent,  a  serpent,  therefore,  unrolls  and  entwines 
himself  around  the  foot  of  the  cross."  The  soul,  represented  as  a  dove, 
"  although  menaced  by  the  serpent,  looks  steadfastly  at  the  Cross,  whence 
she  derives  her  strength,  and  by  which  she  is  rendered  safe  from  the 
poison  of  Satan.  The  word  Salus,  written  below  the  ground  on  which 
the  cross  and  doves  are  standing,  is  the  song  of  triumph  poured  forth  by 
faithful  Christians  in  honor  of  Jesus  and  the  Cross."  ' 

'  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  395. 


CHAPTER  IV 

ROOD-SCREENS 

ROOD-SCREENS  are  almost  coeval  with  church  architecture.     The 
propriety   of   the   separation   of   the   choir   or  chancel  from  the 
nave,  both  for  symbolical  and  practical  reasons,   was   evi-         ,„,.    .,   „, 

'  -'  1  '  Antiquity  of 

dent  to  the  builders  of  our  first  churches.  Perhaps  they  Rood-screens. 
derived  their  idea  from  recollections  of  the  Temple,  the  original  plan  of 
which  was  from  the  Creator  of  all  that  is  "  fit  and  beautiful"  ;  and  if 
so,  then  these  sacred  places  are  the  more  worthy  of  reverence  and  imi- 
tation. Doubtless  they  wished  to  tell  the  people  of  the  veil  between 
the  Church  Militant  and  the  Church  Triumphant,  and  remind  them  of 
the  barrier  impassable  save  through  the  sacrifice  of  Him  whose  Passion 
was  represented  above.' 

Whatever  may  have  been  the  cause  or  reason  for  the  erection  of  a 
partition  between  the  chancel  and  the  nave,  it  was  acted  upon  as  soon 
as  Christianity  had  liberty  to  develop;  accordingly  we  find  that  in  the 
time  of  Constantine,  the  choir  of  the  Church  of  the  Apostles,  erected 
by  the  emperor  at  Constantinople,  was  enclosed  by  a  screen  "  or  trellis- 
work.  This  was  not  an  innovation  or  exception,  for  we  find  the  same 
historian  recording  a  similar  screen  in  a  church  in  Tyre,  built  and  conse- 
crated by  Paulinus.'  The  second  Council  of  Tours,  A.D.  557,  ordered 
that  laics  should  not  enter  the  chancel,  separated  by  a  screen  from  the 
church,  except  to  receive  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 

'  Eusebius,  Life  of  Constantine,  book  iv.,  59. 

'  In  the  symbolism  of  the  Church  the  nave  represents  the  Church  ^tilitant,  the  chancel  the 
Church  Triumpliant  ;  the  screen  the  division,  (;.  e.  death),  above  which  the  Doom  or  Last  Jiidi;- 
ment  was  formerly  painted. 

^  Eusebius,  Ecclcs.  Hist.,  book  x.,  chap.  iv.  "  .\nd  that  this  (the  holy  altar)  might  be  in- 
accessible to  the  multitude  he  enclosed  it  with  a  frame  of  lattice  work,  accurately  wrought  with 

ingenious  sculpture." 
13 

193 


A  Cathedral  Screen.     From  Pugin's  Treatise  on  Cluuicd  Screens  and  Rood-Lofts. 


194 


Rood-Scrcens  195 

This  reverent  practice  of  antiquity  lias  received  the  sanction  of  pious 
builders  and  prelates  until  very  late  times.  Even  in  England,  Arch- 
bishop Parker  (1559)  demands,  "  Whether  a  partition  be  made  and  kejjt 
between  the  chancel  and  the  church  according  to  the  advertisements  ?  " 
Nearly  a  hundred  years  later,  Bishop  Montague  (1641)  asks,  "  Is  your 
chancel  divided  from  the  nave  or  body  of  your  church  with  a  partition 
of  stone,  boards,  wainscot,  grates,  or  otherwise '  wherein  is  there  a 
decent  strong  door  to  open  and  shut  (as  occasion  serveth)  with  lock  and 
key,  to  keep  out  boys,  girls,  or  irreverent  men  and  women  ?  "  "  Hooker 
defends  the  use.     The  Puritans  objecting  to  these  divisions  „    ,    , 

^  ^  Hooker  s 

of  the  church,  "  as  being  framed  according  to  the  pattern  Defence, 

of  the  Jewish  Temple,"  Hooker  observes  that  it  is  "A  fault  no  less 
grievous,  if  so  be  it  were  true,  than  if  some  king  should  build  his  man- 
sion-house by  the  model  of  Solomon's  palace.  So  far  forth  as  our 
churches  and  their  temple  have  one  end,  what  should  let  but  that  they 
may  lawfully  have  one  form  ?  The  temple  was  for  sacrifice,  and  there- 
fore had  rooms  to  that  purpose,  such  as  ours  have  none.  Our  churches 
are  places  provided,  that  the  people  might  there  assemble  themselves, 
in  due  and  decent  manner,  according  to  their  several  degrees  and  order. 
Which  thing  being  common  unto  us  with  Jews,  we  have  in  this  respect 
our  churches  divided  by  certain  partitions,  although  not  so  many  in  num- 
ber as  theirs.  .  .  .  There  being  in  ours  for  local  distinction  between 
the  clergy  and  the  rest  (which  yet  we  do  not  with  any  great  strictness 
or  curiosity  observe  neither)  but  one  partition,  the  cause  whereof  at  the 
first  (as  it  seemeth)  was,  that  as  many  as  were  capable  of  the  holy  mys- 
teries, might  there  assemble  themselves  and  no  other  creep  in  amongst 
them."' 

These  screens  were  made  of  metal,  stone,  or  wood.     In  Germany, 
Flanders,  and  the  North  of  Europe  metal  was  the  usual  material.      In 
England  and  France,  stone  and  wood ;  and  in  Italy  and  the 
South,   the}'  were  usually  composed  partly  of  marble  and 
partly  of  metal.'' 

The  Eastern  Church  employed  a  screen  called  iconosfasis,  from  the 

'  (^)iioted  in  Haniihook  of  English  Ecclesiology  p.  73.  See  also  Perry's  Lawful  Church 
Ornaments,  p.  525. 

'  Montague,  "  Visitation  .Articles,"  Camb.  ed.,  p.  43,  quoted  in  Hio-urgia  Anglicana,  p.  76. 
^  Hooker,  Eccl.  Polity,  book  v.,  §  14.     See  notes  on  same  section, 
*  Pugin,  Treatise  on  Chancel  Screens,  etc.,  p.  11. 


A  Parochial  Screen.     I'rom  Piigin's  Tmitise  on  CluiiHcl  Scrrois  ami  Kood-Lojts. 


I<j6 


Rood-Screens 


197 


Tepekerman. 


icons  depicted  upon  it.  This  docs  not  occu[)y  tlie  same  place  as  the 
rood-screen  in  the  Western  Cliurcli,  but  corresponds  in  phice  to  our 
altar  rails,  separating  the  choir  from  the  sanctuary,  or  beina. 

Iconostases, 

It  was  made  cither  of  metal,  marble,  or  wood.  The  one 
already  referred  to  as  built  by  Constantino  was  of  copper-gilt.  That 
of  S.  Catharine  at  Mt.  Sinai  is  of  ivory,  tortoise-shell,  and  silver.'  S. 
Sophia's  is  of  silver.  The  lower  stage  was  wrought  in  arabesques  or 
flowers;  the  second  was  composed  of  twelve  columns  (on  each  of  the 
holy  doors),  entwined  two  and  two,  supporting  a  rich  crest-work  of 
chased  metal,  and  filled  in  between  with  panels  bearing,  in  oval  medal- 
lions, icons  of  our  blessed  Lord  and  His  mother,  the  prophets  and 
apostles,  and  the  monogram  of  Justinian  and  Theodora. 

The  ancient  iconostases,  like  the  early  rood-screens,  were  of  open 
work.  When  they  were  made  solid,  it  is  diflficult  now  to  ascertain.  The 
earliest  example  which  Neale  mentions  is  that  in  the  Arian 
crypt  of  the  Church  of  Tepekerman,  in  the  Crimea,  about 
A.D.  350,  which  appears  to  be  nearly  open." 

In  the  Western  Church,  the  thirteenth  century  is  the  earliest  date  to 
which  the  use  of  solid  screens 
can  be  assigned.  Their  ob- 
ject appears  to  have  been  the 
protection  of  the  ecclesias- 
tics from  the  cold  after  the 
multiplication  of  the  offices 
consequent  on  the  great  fre- 
quency of  Obits,  i.  ('. ,  funeral 
offices,  the  institution  of  the 
office  of  the  blessed  Virgin  at 
the  Council  of  Clermont,  and 
other  innovations.' 

In  the  earl}'  Church,  the 
Epistle  and  Gospel  were  read  or  sung  from  two  stone  pulpits,  termed 
amboiirs.  or  aim/ogia,  placed  at  the  lower  end  of  the  chancel.     The  lessons 


Iconostasis  at  Tepekerman. 
From  Neale's  History  of  titc  Holy  Eastern  C/iurch. 


'  Neale,  Hist.  Eastern  Church,  Introduction,  p.  193  ;  also  fully  described  in  the  Ecclesi- 
ologist,  vol.  xi.  (N.  S.),  p.  g. 

-  Neale,  Hist.  Eastern  Church,  Introduction,  pp.  193,  194. 

^  Father  Thiers,  Diss,  tie  la  Cloture  des  Cheeurs  des  Eglises,  quoted  in  the  Ecclesiologist, 
vol.  ii.,  p.  g2. 


3 


Rood-Scrcens  199 

were  also  read  fiom  thcin,  ami  as  the  reader,  before  commencing;,  asked 
a  blessing,  beginning  with  Jubc  Doiiiinc  bcncdiccrc,  they  were  com- 
monly called  Jnbcs,  whicli  name  '  they  retained  when  the  Rood-ioft 
pulpits  were  phiced  in  the  rood-loft,  or  gallery  above  the  orjube. 
screen. 

In  the  Eastern  Church,  the  rood-loft,  or,  speaking  more  properly,  the 
a)ialogiuin,  is  very  ancient,  having  been  used  long  before  it  was  intro- 
duced  into  the  Western.      In    England,    rood-lofts  do  not 

Early  Uses. 

appear  to  have  been  common  before  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury," although  one  was  erected  at  St.  Albans  in  the  twelfth  century, 
and  another  in  the  thirteenth  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds;  the  cathedrals  and 
monastery  churches  gradually  adopting  this  feature  in  their  architecture, 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  warmth  and  seclusion  to  the  canons  or  monks. 
In  the  course  of  time  the  rood-loft  became  the  usual  place  for  important 
public  ceremonies,  the  reading  of  the  pastorals  of  the  Bishops,  the  pro- 
clamation of  treaties,  and  the  acts  of  Councils.  From  it,  [jenitents  were 
absolved, _ elect  abbots  presented  to  the  people,  and  the  Episcopal  bene- 
diction was  pronounced,  and  at  a  later  date  the  organ  and  singers  were 
placed  in  these  lofts.      Bishops  often  preached  from  them. 

In  general,  rood-screens  were  accordingly  of  ample  size,  as  in  that 
of  S.  Sophia,  Constantinople.  Emperors  were  sometimes  crowned  in 
these  places,   which  ceremony  required  considerable  space 

Size. 

for  its  due  performance.      Several  of  the  kings  of  France 
ascended  the  rood-loft  of  Rheims  Cathedral  at  their  coronation;  and  as 
it  was  demolished  previous  to  the  accession  of  Charles  X.,  a  temporary 
loft  was  erected  for  the  occasion. 

Pre-eminently  in  the  centre,  over  the  holy  doors,  stood  the  great 
cross  or  rood.  This  was  usually  framed  of  timber  richly  carved,  gilded,  or 
painted.      In  the  extremities  were  placed  the  four  Evaneel- 

^  1^0  Furniture  of 

ists,  and  usually  under  the  form  of  the  well-known  symbols;  the  Rood-ioft. 
more  rarely,  as  sitting  figures  in  the  act  of  writing.  On  the  reverse  were 
frequently  the  four  doctors,  SS.  Jerome,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and 
Gregory.  The  extremities  of  the  Cross  were  generally  floriated,  and  its 
sides  crocketed  or  floriated. 

'  The  Ainhnncs  in  the  Eastern  Church,  it  will  be  recollected,  were  placed  between  the  choir 
and  the  sanctuary,  as  in  San  Clemente  at  Rome,  not  as  was  the  rood-loft  in  the  Western,  between 
the  choir  and  the  nave. 

'•  Glossary  of  Architecture^  "  Rood-beam,  Rood-luft." 


Screen  and  Rood-Loft,  Hospital,  Lubeck. 
From  Pugin's  Treatise  on  Chancel  Screens  and  Rood-Lofts. 


Rood-Screens  201 

Occasionally,   altars  were  erected    in  the  loft  under  the  foot  of  the 
Cross,  as  was  the  case  in  the  Church  of  S.  Maurice,  at  Vienna,  where  the 
parochial  altar  was  in  the  centre  of  the  rood-loft,  and  the         ^^^  jj 
elements  of  the    Eucharist   were   also  there    reserved,   sub  screenc. 

titulo  criicis. ' 

The  blessed  Virgin  and  S.  John  were  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross, 
but  probably  not  at  a  very  early  period,  and  cherubim  were  occasionally 
added.     The  rood   itself  sometimes  rose  to  a  great  height, 

Figures 

examples  being  found  extending  sixty  feet  from  the  floor;        intheRood- 

.  ,  ...  .  Screen. 

hence,  owmg  to  the  great  weight,  it  was  sometimes  sup- 
ported by  chains,  often  composed  of  long  ornamented  links,  united  by 
gilded  balls.  In  many  churches  in  the  Low  Countries,  staples  for  these 
still  remain.  In  the  lofts  were  also  placed  the  lecterns  for  the  Epistle 
and  Gospel.  The  lessons  and  great  antiphones  were  also  chanted  from 
them,  and  in  the  Greek  Church,  the  deacon  read  the  diptychs  from 
them,  and  also  formally  warned  the  catechumens  and  penitents  to  depart 
before  the  celebration  of  the  holy  Eucharist.  The  lecterns  were  either 
movable  brass  or  metal  stands,  or  stone  desks  built  in  and  forming 
part  of  the  masonry. 

Coronas  of  silver  or  other  metal  were  .suspended  from  the  rood-loft, 
and  filled  with  lights  on  the  great  festivals,  and  also  deco- 

.  Coronas. 

rated  with  branches  of  trees  and  flowers. 

Generally  in  wooden  screens  the  brest-summer,  or  main  front  beam 
of  the  screen,  is  the  foundation  in  which  the  rood  is  fi.xed,  but  there  are 
exceptions,  in  which  the  rood-beam  is  placed  at  some  dis-  Rood-beam 
tance  above  the  screen.''     At  Antwerp  Cathedral,  unless  the 

Rood  Suspended. 

writer   is    mistaken,    a    rood    is    suspended    from    the    roof 
instead  of  a  screen. 

In  Romanesque  and  early  pointed  work  the  chancel  arches  were  so 
narrow  that  the  walls  on  each  side  served  as  a  sort  of  screen.  The  arch, 
therefore,  was  furnished  only  with  gates  and  a  rood-beam ; 

}  >=>  Changes  of 

and  it  has  been  questioned  if  the  rood  were  not  sometimes,    screen  in  Differ- 
ent Periods. 

in  these  cases,  fixed  in  a  kind  of  square  niche  over  the  chan- 
cel arch,  where  the  Doom  at  a  later  period  was  usually  painted.     As  the 
chancel  arch  increased  in  width,  so  the  rood-screen  increased  in  size  and 
splendor,  until  it  reached  its  height  of  magnificence  in  the  Tudor  age. 

*  Pugin,   Tft-atise  on  ChaiUi'l  Screens^  etc.,  p.  17. 
'  Ibid.,  pp.  19,  20. 


202  History  of  the  Cross 

Tlie  ascent  to  the  loft  was  by  means  of  the  rood-staircase.     Of  these 

there  were  sometimes  two,  as  in  the  case  of  S.  Etienne-du-Mont  at  Paris. 

Two  spiral  staircases  of  exquisite  beauty  wound  around  the 

Rood-Staircase.  .  ,        ,-,  -hi 

opposite  piers  of  the  screen.  (Jccasionally  tliey  were  con- 
cealed in  a  pier,  or  in  the  chancel  wall,  or,  when  accompanied  by  a  cen- 
tral tower,  formed  a  part  of  the  main  staircase  to  the  belfry.  Often  they 
were  also  carried  up  in  a  rood-turret,  many  of  the  Norfolk  churches  hav- 
ing two  turrets,"  which  furnished  at  the  same  time  a  convenient  passage- 
way to  the  leads. 

From  the  staircase,  the  entrance  to  the  rood-loft  was  by  the  rood- 
door.     When  the  staircase  was  in  the  north  or  south  wall  of  the  aisle, 

as  in  many  of  the  churches  in  Somersetshire,  a  wooden  pas- 
Rood-Door.  A      f-     -n  ' 
sage  was  thrown  across  to  the  chancel  arch.     At  S.  Peter  s, 

in  Ropsley,  Lincolnshire,  the  staircase  is  in  the  north  wall  of  the  north 
aisle,  and  a  stone  bridge  is  carried  across,  partly  blocking  the  east  win- 
dow of  the  aisle. ^ 

After  the  time  of  Edward  VI.,  rood-lofts  in  England  were  mosth' 
destroyed,  and  against  them  were  directed  the  special  fuhninations  of 
the  Puritans,  although  their  senseless  rage  should  have  been  allayed  by 
those  lines  which  were  often  inscribed  underneath  the  rood: 

' '  Effigicin  Christi  Jttin  iraiisis,  semper  /loiiora, 
Inscription  on  A'on  tiiiiiei!  effigiciii,  sed  Qiiciii  designat,  adora. 

the  Rood-screen,     ^niii  Deiis  esf,  Qiiod  imago  dceet,  sed  noii  Dens  ipse, 
Hiinc  videas,  et  meiite  eolas,  quod  ceriiis  in  ilia.'"  * 

"  The  effigy  of  Christ,  when  thou  passest  under,  ever  honor,  but  yet  not 
the  effigy,  but  whom  it  represents,  adore ;  for  what  the  image  teaches  is 
God,  but  itself  is  not  God.  Look  then  upon  it,  and  in  thy  mind  wor- 
ship what  thou  seest  in  it." 

Post-Reformation   rood-screens  are  not   uncommon.      The  Handbook 
of  English  Ecclcsiology  instances  several,  and  rc'inarks  that  it  is  very  curi- 
ous that  of  all  Sir  Christopher  Wren's  churches,  only  one  is 

Post-Reforma-  '  •' 

tion  Rood-  destitute  of  some  approximation  to  a  rood-screen,  so  strong 

Screens. 

even  then  was  ancient  tradition.  .St.  i'aul's  Cathedral  re- 
tained its  rood-screen  until  1547.      Stow  declared:  "  the  17th  of  Ntn'cm- 

'  Galignani,  Paris,  p.  46. 

"  Duranchis,  p.  217. 

'  Ilantiliook  oj  Eiif;/ish  Ecclcsiology,  "  Rood-Screens." 

*  Weaver,  Ancient  Funeral  Monuments  in  Great  Britain,  p.  117. 


Rood-Scrccns  203 

bcr  was  begun  to  be  pulled  down  the  Roode  in  Paul's  church,  with  Mary 
and  John  and  all  other  images  in  the  church  ;  and  then  the  like  was  done 
in  all  the  churches  in  England,  and  texts  of  Scripture  were  written  upon 
the  walls  of  those  churches  against  images."  '  Many  remained  even 
in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 

The  translators  of  Durandus  thus  explain  the  symbolism  of  the  chan- 
cel arch  and  rood-screen  :  "  these,  as  separating  the  Choir  from  the  Nave, 
denote  literally  the  separation  of  the  Clergy  from  the  Laity ;  but  sym- 
bolically the  division  between  the  Militant  and  Triumphant  Churches, 
that  is  to  say,  the  Death  of  the  Faithful.  The  first  great  symbol  which 
sets  this  forth  is  the  Triumphal  Cross,  the  Image  of  Him  who  by  His 
Death  hath  overcome  Death,  and  hath  gone  before  His  people  through 
the  valley  of  its  shadow.  The  images  of  Saints  and  Martyrs  appear  in 
the  lower  panelling,  as  examples  of  faith  and  patience  to  us.  The  colours 
of  the  rood-screen  itself  represent  their  Passion  and  Victory:  the  crim- 
son sets  forth  the  one,  the  gold  the  other.  The  curious  tracery  of  net- 
work typifies  the  obscure  manner  in  which  heavenly  things  are  set  forth, 
while  we  look  at  them  from  the  Church  Militant. 

"And  for  as  much  as  the  Blessed  Martyrs  passed  from  this  world  to 
the  next  through  sore  torments,  the  moiddings  of  the  Chancel  Arch  re- 
present the  various  kinds  of  sufferings  through  which  they  went.  Faith 
was  their  support,  and  must  be  ours:  and  Faith  is  set  forth  either  in  the 
abstract,  by  the  limpet  moulding  on  the  Chancel  Arch  ;  or  on  the  screen, 
as  in  Bishop's  Hull,  Somersetshire,  by  the  Creed  in  raised  gilt  letters,  or 
is  represented  by  some  notable  action  of  which  it  was  the  source:  so  in 
Cleeve,  Somersetshire,  the  destruction  of  a  Dragon  runs  along,  not  only 
the  Rood-screen,  but  the  North  Parclose  also.  But  in  that  the  power 
of  evil  spirits  may  be  exercised  against  us  till  we  have  left  this  world,  but 
not  after,  horrible  forms  are  sometimes  sculptured  in  the  West  side  of 
the  Chancel  Arch. 

"  The  foregoing  remarks  may  perhaps  explain  what  has  been  felt  by 
some  Ecclesiologists  as  a  difficulty :  how  it  happens,  since  the  Chancel 
is  more  highly  ornamented  than  the  Nave,  that  it  is  the  Western,  or 
Nave  side,  not  the  Eastern  or  Chancel  side,  of  the  Chancel  Arch  which 
invariably  receives  the  greatest  share  of  ornament.  The  straitness  of 
the  entrance  to  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  is  set  forth  by  the  excessive  nar- 

'  Stow,  Annals  or  Chronicles. 


204  History  of  the  Cross 

rowness  of  Norman  Chancel  Arches.  And  the  final  separation  of  the 
Church  Triumphant  from  everything  that  defileth  was  almost  invariably 
represented  by  the  Great  Doom  painted  in  fresco  over  the  Rood-screen ; 
of  which  there  are  still  several  examples,  as  the  celebrated  one  in  Trin- 
ity Church,  Coventry;  and  many  more  might  be  found  if  the  whitewash 
in  that  place  were  scraped  off.  And  not  only  is  the  judgment  of  the 
world,  but  that  of  individuals  here  set  forth:  on  the  South  side  of  the 
Chancel  wall  of  Preston  Church,  Sussex,  is  a  fresco  of  S.  Michael  weigh- 
ing the  souls;  the  Devil  stands  by,  eager  to  secure  his  prize,  but  b}-  the 
intervention  of  the  Blessed  Virgin,  the  scale  preponderates  in  favour  of 
the  sinner."  ' 

Another  mystical  meaning  is  attributed  by  ecclesiologists  to  the 
rood-screen :  the  doors  always  open  inwards.  And  the  great  rood  above 
is  "  The  Tree  of  Life  in  the  midst  of  the  garden  "  ;  and  therefore  stands 
in  the  midst  of  the  church. 

'  Introduction  to  Durandus,  p.  102. 


CHAPTER  V 

ALTAR   ANU    REIJQUARV    CROSSES 

EUSEBIUS,  in  his  life  of  Constantine,  in  a  passage  wliich  has  been 
.ihcady  quoted,   says  "  that  tile  symbol  of  the  Saving  Passion 
was  set  up,  formed  of  precious  stones."  '     And  from  this  it  _.     ... 

i  '  i  The  Altar 

has  been  supposed  that  the  Cross  was  placed  upon  the  altar,  Cross, 

as  the  most  fitting  place,  in  the  time  of  that  Emperor.  But  it  is  strange, 
if  that  be  the  fact,  that  the  historian,  in  his  minute  description  of 
churches,  does  not  make  more  specific  mention  of  the  Cross  as  one  of 
the  ornaments  of  the  altar.  Perhaps  it  was  so  common  that  he  did  not 
think  it  necessary. 

Bingham  is  of  the  opinion  that  the  altar  cross  was  introduced  after 
thejyear  340.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that,  in  the  same  century  in 
which  occurred  the  victory  of  Constantine  over  Ma.xentius,  when  First 
ascribed  to  the  Roman  Emperor's  being  cheered  on  to  tri-  used, 

umph  by  the  miraculous  vision  of  the  Cross,  and  the  presumed  discovery 
of  the  sacred  wood  by  S.  i^elena,  the  custom  may  liave  originated  of 
placing  "  the  symbol  of  the  Saving^assion  "  in  _thejnost^acred  part 
o  fthe_tenvglei_ 

Sozomen,  in  the  fifth  century,  speaks  of  material  crosses  lying  upon 
the  altar  °;  and  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  A.D.  431,  Acacius  of  Mitylene, 
incidentally  alluded   to  the  Cross  being  honored  together  in  the  vth 

with  altars  of  Christ,"  indicating  that  it  was  part  of  the  fur-  Century, 

niture  of  the  sanctuary  at  that  time. 

In  the  second  Council  of  Tours,  A.D.  567,  it  was  decreed  that  the 
elements  of  the  Eucharist  should  not  be  kept  in  the  annarhini,  but 
under  the  figure  of  the  Cross  upon  the  altar.'     The  same  Council  also 

'  Life  of  Constantine,  lib.  iii.,  cap.  40.  '  Fleury,  Eceles.  Hist.,  xxv.,  34. 

''  Sozomen,  lib.  i.,  cap.  3.  ■*  Bingham,  Antiq.,  b.  viii.,  sec.  19. 

205 


Maximiamis  Welcoming  Justinian.      Fmni  Ciampini's  I'l/yni  Moiiiiiifiila. 

206 


Altar  antl  Rclicjuary  Crosses  207 

forbade  the  celebration  of  the  Lortl's  Supper  without  the  presence  of  a 
cross  upon  the  lioly  table.  Evagrius  records  that  Chosroes  gave  silver 
crosses  to  a  church  in  Constantinople  to  be  fixed  upon  the  ,   .,    ,,,.. 

i  i  In  the  Vlth 

altar.'     In  a  fresco  of  the  same  century  (the  sixth),  in  the  Century. 

Church  of  S.  Vitale  at  Ravenna,  representing  Maxiniianus  welcoming 
the  Emperor  Justinian,  the  Bishop  holds  what  seems  to  be  an  altar  cross 
in  his  hands. ^ 

In  those  days  gifts  were  not  uncommon  of  gold  crosses  richly  adorned 
with  costly  gems,  containing  the  still  greater  wealth  of  a  fragment  of  the 
true  Cross.  Pope  Symmachus  ^  (a.D.  498-515)  presented  crossoivento 
such  an  one  to  the  Vatican,  and  it  can  hardl\-  be  supposed         the  Vatican 

i  A  by  Pope 

but  that  these  were  placed  in  the  most  hallowed  jxirt  of  the  symmachus. 
sanctuary.  Nevertheless,  altars,  J^la^ktejieriod;  jjjdgmgfrom  the  re- 
presentations which  have  been  handed  down  to  us,  were  severely  simple 
in   their  furniture.      Leo   IV.,   A.D.  ^47,    ordered   that   the  .,,      ,,     . 

'  •J~'  '  Altars  Unadorned 

only  ornaments  should  be  the  caf'sa  or  reliquary,  the  Gos-  in  Early  Ages, 
pels  and  the  pyx.  In  a  fresco  of  the  ninth  century,  in  the  Church  of  S. 
Ambrogio  at  Milan,  .S.  Ambrose  is  represented  as  celebrating  mass  at  a 
small  cylindrical  altar,  the  only  ornament  upon  which  is  a  plain  cross. 
In  a  painting  of  the  Italian  school  of  the  eleventh  century,  gi\'en  by 
D'Agincourt,  the  altar  at  celebration  supports  only  two  tapers  and  a 
small  cross.  And  that  for  one  or  two  centuries  these  were  used  or 
omitted,  indifferently,  seems  probable ;  for  in  the  thirteenth  century  we 
find  altars  without  cross,  tapers,  or  adornments,  as  in  the  shrine  by 
Giovanni  da  Pisa,  Arezzo  Cathedral,  .v.n.  1286;  or  with  the  Cross  alone, 
as  in  a  painting  by  Cimabue  in  the  Uffizi,  Florence.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  the  altar  still  appears  unadorned  even  in  so  high  a  solemnity 
as  a  coronation,  as  represented  on  the  tomb  of  Guido  Tarlati  in  Arezzo 

'  Evag.,  Ecclfs.  Hist.,  lib.  vi.,  cap.  21. 

'  Ciampini,   Vetera  iVoiiimenta,  torn,  ii.,  tab.  22. 

^  To  those  utilitarians  who  object  that  money  is  jvasted  in  the  adornment,  which  might  be 
given  to  other  laudal>le  objects,  this  Bishop  of  Rome  should  be  cited.  During  a  pontificate  of 
sixteen  years,  when  Rome  was  depressed  owing  to  the  Gothic  and  Vandal  wars,  besides  building 
at  least  four  churches,  and  enlarging  many  others,  presenting  six  silver  altars,  and  images  of 
silver  of  the  Saviour  and  his  apostles  (altogether  weighing  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds),  to 
the  Ostian  Basilica,  he  erected  baths  for  the  monks  (and  probably  Pilgrims),  established  hospices 
for  the  poor  near  the  basilicas  within  the  city,  and  near  S.  Peter's,  S.  Paul's,  and  S.  Laurence's 
without  the  walls,  and  expended  large  sums  in  the  redemption  of  citizens  sold  into  slavery,  and 
in  the  maintenance  of  the  .A.frican  bishops  driven  into  exile  in  .Sardinia  by  the  Vandals.  Ob- 
jectors to  such  liberality  may  find  comfort  itt  thinking  that  no  bishop  in  the  present  day  has  the 
means,  let  alone  the  will,  to  emulate  that  Bishop  of  Rome. 


208 


History  of  the  Cross 


Cathedral,  A.D.  1320-1330;  or  witli  onl_\- the  Cross,  as  in  Giotto's  ilkis- 
trations  of  the  Hfe  of  S.  Francis,  and  in  the  frescos  by  Fra  Angelico 
depicting  the  celebration  of  mass  in  the  Chapel  of  S.  Laurence  in  the 


Kelif|uary  of  On'ieto.      XI\'lli  Century. 
From  Labarte's  ILiiidbool;  of  the  Arts  of  llh   Middle  Ages  niid  A'e/iiu'ssaiii-f. 

Vatican.  Even  in  the  paintings  of  Raphael  and  of  Andrea  del  .Sarto  the 
decoration  of  the  altar  is  simple  compared  with  the  profusion  now  exhib- 
ited ill  modern  Itali.in  churches.' 

It  would  seem,  thcrefon-,  thai  in  spite  of  the  canon  of  the  Council  of 

'  llcinans,  .'hicioit  Cliristianity  and  Socrcd  Art ,  pp.  55S,  562. 


Altar  and  Reliquary  Crosses  209 

Tours  as  to  the  usage  of  the  Cross,  that  it  was  not  generally  placed  upon 
the  altar  until  the  nii'ith  century,  and  even  then,  that  there  was  no  strict 
custom  for  several  hundred  years.     It  has  been  stated  that 

_- Cross  Placed 

■"  before  the  fourteenth  century  no  candles  or  crosses  were      UponAUarin 

,1  1         '  111  '*^"'  Century. 

permitted  to  be  permanently  set  on   the  altars,    but  were 

invariably  brought  in  by  two  acolytes  when  mass  was  to  be  said."  '     Prior 

to  the  sixteenth  century  altars  exhibited  little  else  than  the      ^      c       u 

J _ _  Crucifix  when 

"  emblem  of  thejaving  Passion,"  and  that  as  a  sirnple  cross  ordered, 

much  more  frequently  than  as  a  crucifix.  The  latter  was  not  an  indis- 
pensable accessory  until  ordered  by  Benedict  XIV.,  A.D.  1754. 

Many  altar  crosses  were  used  as  reliquaries,  and  contained  a  fragment 
of  the  true  Cross,  and  were  ornamented  wiUijjrecious  stones.  Beryls  and 
pearls  especially  were  chosen  ;  the  color  of  the  first,  green,  sym-  Adornment  of 
boliziiig  Regeneration,  Hope,  and  Charity;  the  pure  white  the  Cross. 

of  the  other  remiading  the  worshipper  of  Light,  Innocence,  and  Purity. 

Few  ancient  altar  crosses  are  in  existence.  One  of  the  most  vener- 
able is  in  the  Baptistery  at  Ravenna;  it  is  nearly  of  \.\\& pattec  form,  and 
is  dated  A.D.  688.      A  comparatively  modern  one,  yet  inter-       .     .    .„ 

1  J  J  Ancient  Cross 

esting  on  account  of  its  donor,  is  preserved  in  York  Minster.  at  Ravenna. 
It  stands  on  six  bases,  having  angels  on  their  pinnacles;  two  of  the  celes- 
tials hold  in  their  hands  the  relics  of  the  chasuble  of  S.  Peter;  images  of 
the  thieves  and  others  connected  with  the  Crucifixion  are  at  the  foot, 
and  it  is  adorned  with  rubies,  sapphires,  and  other  gems.  It  was  the 
gift  of  King  Richard  the  III. 

Multitudes  of  examples  might  be  given,  but  one  is  selected  of  the 
twelfth  century.  It  is  of  copper  and  gilt.  The  feet  are  not  crossed  or 
nailed,    but   the   third    nail    is  shown  in  the  suppcdaucitin.       „         rv,,.K 

J-'  Cross  01  XI I  th 

At  the  foot  of  the  Cross  are  three  archangels,  who  with  century, 

outstretched  wings  encircle  the  tree  of  redemption.  Each  of  them  holds 
a  medallion,  upon  which  is  inscribed  his  name  in  Hebrew,  with  the 
Latin  translation,  recalling  his  office  with  the  Most  High: 

' '  Alicliacl  q Ill's  lit  Dciis. 
Gabriel  fortitudo  Dei. 
RapJiacl  incdi cilia  Dei. 

The  sun  and  moon  are  represented  by  the  conventional  figures.  Upon 
the  tunic  is  an  inscription  on  a  sliding  door,  Liginnn  Domini,   showing 

'  Walcott,  Sixcred  Arehaology,  "Altar." 


2IO 


History  of  the  Cross 


that  within  was  a  portion  of  the  true  Cross.  "  The  messengers  of  the 
Eternal,  seated  at  the  foot  of  the  Cross,  are  placed  there  to  attest  that 
the  Crucihtd  lias  not  ceased  to  be  the  Lord  of  the  universe,  whose  im- 
mutable decrees  they  are  ready  to  execute."  ' 

All  J^-otestanls  have  not  rejected 
the  use  of  tli£_^ltar  Cross,  or  crucifix. 
Use  of  Altar  Tli^  United  Lutheran  and 
Cross  in  Europe,  reformed  sects  in  Prussia 
still  retain  the  crucifix  upon  their  Com- 
munion tables. °  At  the  coronation  of 
the  "  White  King,"  Charles  L,  there 
was  a  crucifix  upon  the  altar.  Even 
\\-hcn  I<lngland  was  sunk  in  Erastianism, 
Bishop  Butler  placed  a  white  marble 
cross  on  the  altar  of  the  Cathedral  of 
Bristol,  where  it  remained  until  de- 
stroyed by  the  mob  in  1831."  Nor 
should  we  forget  in  this  place  the  Cross 
used  upon  the  altar,  which  Queen  Eliza- 
beth refused  to  have  removed. 

The  Nestorians,  while  venerating 
the  Cross,  will  not  tolerate jtlie-CHicifix. 
r,„==  A„^n„     When  Roman  Catholic  mis- 

Lross  Among 

the  Nestorians.  sionaries  have  left  the  cruci- 
Bronze  Crucifix.    Xllth  Century.  fix  among  them,  they  have  broken  the 

From  Labarte's  Handbook  of  the  Arts  of    •  ^    ^      r ti       r"  Ti  •  ] 

. ,  ,  ■'  .  ■'    mnage  irom  the  Cross.      1  hey  consider 

tki:  Muliilc  Ages  and  Renaissance.  "-  — —     ^ 

the  Cross  as  sacramental,"  distinctly 
declaring  that  its  efficacy  is  derived  from  Mini  who  was  crucified.  Hence 
on  Holy  Cross  day  (September  13th)  in  their  services  they  appeal  to  the 
"  Cross  "  that  "  has  saved  us."  "the  Cross  has  made  us  triumphant," 
"  the  Cross  has  renewed  us,"   "  the  Cross  has  made  us  at  peace,"  "  the 

'  Labarte,  Ha>idbook  of  Arts  of  the  Middle  Af^es,  p.  xviii.,  fia;  14. 

"  Pusey,  Letter  to  the  Bishop  of  London,  p.  115. 

'  Fitzgerald,  Life  of  Bishop  Butler,  prefixed  to  his  Analogy,  p.  Iviii. 

■■  "The  earliest  Christian  artists  when  making  a  representation  of  the  Trinity,  placed  a 
Cross  beside  the  Father  and  the  Holy  Spirit  ;  a  Cross  only,  without  our  crucified  Lord.  Th6 
Cross  did  not  only  recall  Christ  to  mind,  but  actually  showed  Him.  In  Christian  Iconography, 
Christ  is  actually  present  under  tlie  form  and  semblance  of  the  Cross."  Didron's  Christ. 
Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  367. 


Altar  and  Rcli([uary  Crosses  211 

liviiiLj  Cross  went  out  to  seek  after  lis,  and  sa\'e(l  mir  life  that  was  lost." 
They  trace  the  oriL;in  of  the  worship  to  the  ti-ailition  that  when  Christ, 
just  previous  to  his  ascension,  led  his  disciples  to  Mount  Olivet,  He 
stretched  out  His  hands  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  in  order  to  briny  to  their 
recollection,  that  from  the  shame  of  the  cross,  on  which  they  had  seen 
him.  He  had  derived  that  gloiy  in  which  they  beheld  his  ascension, 
according  to  the  words  of  S.  Paul:  "  He  humbled  himself  and  became 
obedieiU  unto  death,  even  the  death  of  the  Cross,  wherefore  God  also 
hath  highly  exalted  him  "  (Phil,  ii.,  8-9).  So  when  the  disciples  saw 
their  Lord  exhibiting  the  figure  of  the  Cross,  they  prostrated  themselves 
to  the  ground.  Hence  the  Nestorians  say  that  the  worship  of  the  Cross 
began  in  the  "  upper  chamber,"  and  afterwards  was  recognized  in  Anti- 
och ;  and  yet  guarding  against  idolatry,  they  affirm,  "'we  offer  fervent 
and  Eucharistic  worship,  not  to  the  fashioned  matter  of  the  Cross,  but 
to  Him  whom  we  figure  on  it."  '' 

'  Badger,  A'cs/oriiins,  and  their  Rituals,  vul.  ii.,  pp.  1 30-136. 


CHAPTER  \T 

CRUCIFORM   ORNAMENTS 

A  PROPER  description  of  ecclesiastical  and  secular  articles  and 
furniture  in  which  the  Cross  is  used  would  fill  volumes,  but  much 
information  may  be  easily  found  in  other  \\orks ;  hence  a  reference  to  a 
few  articles  not  at  the  present  time  in  general  use  in  the  Anglican  and 
American  branches  of  the  Church,  by  way  of  illustration,  is  all  that  is 
needed. 

Every  appurtenance  of  the  altar  was  adorned  with  this  sacred  sym- 
bol,  wrought,   engraved,   or   surmounting   it   in   due  place.      Prominent 
among   these    is    the    ciboriuui.       Sometimes    it    is    merel_\- 

Ciborium.  ,       ,      ,.  ,  .  ^  ,  , 

a  covered  chalice  or  pyx.  but  it  appears  formerly  to  have 
been  a  small  dome-shaped  temple,  or  rather  canop}',  resting  upon  pillars, 
surmounted  by  a  cross,  while  within  it  was  suspended  a  dove,  or  cup  of 
gold  or  silver,  containing  the  reserved  Host.  It  is  of  ancient  use,  being 
mentioned  by  S.  Chrysostom. 

The  monstrance   is  of  medi.-Eval  times.     Although   in   the  eleventh 

century  the   Eucharist   was   sometimes  carried    in    processions,   yet   the 

Council  of  Cologne,  in  1452,  first  mentions  that  the   Host 

The  Monstrance. 

was  carried  visibly  in  a  monstrance,  showing  that,  pre\'i- 
ously,  the  wafer  had  been  borne  in  a  closed  cilwriinn.  There  are  various 
forms  of  the  monstrance.  .Sometimes  it  is  a  little  jewelled  tower  with 
glazed  apertures,  a  figure  of  a  saint,  or  the  holy  lamb,  or  a  cross.  A 
crystal  tube  mounted  on  a  pedestal  of  gold  or  sih-cr,  covered  with  a  can- 
opy belongs  to  the  fifteenth  century,  and  a  sun  with  rays,  to  the  seven- 
teenth century.  \t  Conqucs  there  is  preser\'ed  one  of  sih'er-gilt  w  ith  a 
large  disc,  and  a  double  or  patriarchal  cross  above  it;  the  lower  portion 
is  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  rest  of  later  work.  Other  articles  sanc- 
tified by  the  Cross  are  too  familiar  to  need  mention. 


<Sif»W~'         %  If'  i 


Ciboriiim.     Byzantine,  end  of  XlVth  Century. 
From  Wheatley's  .4i/  li'oyk  in   Gold  ami  Silver. 


214 


History  of  the  Cross 


stations. 


Monstrance  of  Sedletz  Castle,  liolieniia, 

XVth  Century.     From  Wheatley's 

Art  Work  in  Gold  and  Silver. 


The  sacerdotal  vestments  are  now 
too  well  known  to  require  description. 
Yet  among  the  variations  of  the  Cross 
is  one  worthy  of  notice.  It  was  ex- 
hibited at  the  Archasological  Institute, 
London,  in  1861.  A  crimson  velvet 
chasuble  of  the  sixteenth  century  bore 
an  embroidered  crucifix,  in  which  Christ 

Cross  Repre-  ^^''^^  represented  as  sus- 
sentedasaTrce.  pendcd,  uot  from  a  cross, 
but  from  a  veritable  tree,  leafless  and 
lopped  of  its  branches. 

Probabl}-  the  last  instance  of  inno- 
vation is  that  of  Pope  Benedict  XIII., 
in    1730,    who    ordered    a 
cross    to    be    placed    over 
every  picture  denoting  a  station  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  churches. 

As    has    been    already    mentioned, 

Theodosius,  about  the  end  of  the  fourth 

century,  introduced  the  royal  symbol, 

the  mound  or  orb,  repre- 

Mound  and  Orb, 

senting  the  world  sur- 
mounted by  the  Cross.'  Tlie  Roman 
Senate  still  hankered  after  their  pagan 
emblems,  and  requested  permission  to 
erect  an  altar  to  the  goddess  of  Vic- 
tors-, wliich  had  been  remo\'ed.  The 
Emperor  forbade  it,  and  about  the  same 
time  abolished  the  worship  of  Serapis 
and  other  heathen  dix'inities  of  Egypt, 
decreeing  tjiat  no  one  in  the  Roman 
dominions  shouUl  presume  to  worshiji 
an  idol  by  sacrifice.  It  was  on  that 
occasion  that  he  crowned  the  orb  with 
the    Cross,    as  it   is  used   in   this   day. 

See  p]j.  8.  156,  and  W'alsli,  Ancient  Coins,  p.   121. 


Cruciform  Ornaments 


215 


The  interpretation  of  its  syni!)olisni  is  t,nven  in  the  Coronation  Ser\ice  of 
Great  Britain  : 

"  Receive  this  imperial  robe,  and  orl).  antl  the  Lord  your  God  endue 
you  with  knowledge  and  wisdom,  with 
majesty    and    with    power 

•^         ■'  Prayer  Used  at 

from    on    high,   the   Lortl  Delivery  of 

Cross  and  Orb. 

clothe  you  with  tlie  robe 
of  righteousness,  and  with  the  garments 
of  salvation.  And  when  you  see  this 
orb  set  under  the  Cross  remember  that 
the  whole  world  is  subject  to  the  power 
and  empire  of  Christ  our  Redeemer: 
for  He  is  the  Prince  of  Kings  of  the 
eartli,  King  of  Kings,  and  Lord  of 
Lords.  So  that  no  man  can  reign 
happih'  who  derives  not  his  autliority 
from  Him,  and  directs  all  his  actions 
according  to  His  laws." 

The  ancient  sceptre  among  the 
Greeks  was  a  wand  called  NapO)jS, 
because  made  of  a  pkuit 
of  that  name,  known  by 
the  Romans  as  Ferula ;  hence  the  em- 
perors were  called  NartJiccoplioroi.  The 
only  place  in  which  this  herb  grows  in 
abundance  is  in  the  island  named  O.xia, 
in  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  where  the  Greek 
emperors  made  their  summer  residence. 

Judging  from  the  coins  described  by 
Gretser,  Flavins  Phocas,  elevated  to  the 
throne  by  the  army  in  the  year  602,  was  the  first  who  adorned  the  sceptre 
with  the  Cross.      He  was  a  bitter,  cruel,  bad  man,  but  fond 

Sceptre  First 

of   parading   his  piety.      With   what   questionable   motives    surmounted  by 

•    •  11  1      1  r  *^^  Cross. 

origmated   those  symbols  of  supreme   power,  the  crowned 
orb,   the  sceptre  and  cross-bearing  crown,  which  have  become  the  ac- 
credited badges  of  the  great  Christian  sovereigns  of  Europe! 

One  of  the  most  notable  amontr  ancient  crowns  is  that   of  Charle- 


Sceptre. 


Monstrance.     From  Lee's  Glossary. 


2l6 


History  of  the  Cross 


magne.     This  crown  is  still  preserved  in  the  Imperial  Treas- 

ur\-  at  Vienna.     It  weighs  fourteen  pounds,  and  is  composed  ff^ 

-  f  of   eiiiht   plates   of  gold,    four  large   and   four 

Crown  of  t>  x  t>  '  & 

Charlemagne.  small,  Connected  by  hinges.  The  first  compart- 
ment contains  twelve  jewels,  unpolislied.  The  second,  on 
the  right  hand,  a  figure  of  our  Saviour  sitting  between  two 
cherubs,  each  with  four  wings,  and  below,  the  motto  Per 
inc  rcgcs  rcgiiaut.  The  third,  fifth,  and  seventh  compart- 
ments contain  onlv  gold  and  gems.  In  the  fourth  is  the 
figure  of  King  Hezekiah,  sitting,  and  by  his  side  the  prophet 
Isaiah,  with  a  scroll,  on  which  is  ^\'ritten  Eccc,  adjiccaiii 
super  dies  tuos  X]'.  aunos.  The  si.xth  has  the  effigy  of  King 
David  crowned;  on  the  scroll  in  his  hand  is  Honor-  regis 
judicium  diligit.  The  eighth  contains  another  figure,  Solo- 
mon ;  on  the  scroll  is  Tiiiute  Doniiiiiuiii,  Regent  auiate.  On 
the  top  of  the  crown  is  a  cross,  with  seventeen  jewels  in 

the  forepart,  and  on  the  top  of  the 
Cross  /.  H.  S.  Rex  jfuderoruui. 
In  the  arch  or  semicircle,  which 
was  added  by  the  Emperor  Con- 
rad, are  the  following  words  : 
Chouonradus  Dei  gratia  Romaii- 
oruiu  luipcrator  Aug.  "  The  cos- 
tume of  the  figures  resembles  that 
of  the  Emperors  of  the  Lower 
Empire,  and  although  the  inscrip- 
tions are  in  Latin,  the  whole  bears 
the  impress  of  Greek  workman- 
ship. The  ground  of  the  figures 
is  formed  by  the  metal  itself, 
which  has  been  hollowed  out  to  Sceptre  .Sur- 
receive  the  enamel ;  but  the  details  ">"»"'"•  I'y  the 

Monstrance :    German  Example  Cross.        From 

of  the  XVlth  Century.  of  the  design  are  traced  out  with   \vhcatley'sy4>7 

From  I.ee's  67ossarx  of  Liturgi-     fi„^.  fjn^.^,,  „f  ,,.,,1^1^      ']'i,^,  ,1^.^],  ^j,,^ ^ 
cat  and  Ecclesiastical  Terms. 

are    in    rose-colored    enamel;    the 

colors  employed  in  the  draperies  and  accessories  are  deep  and  light  blue, 

red,  and  white.     This  crown  has  un(]uestionably  been  retouched  at  \-ari- 


ll'cri   ill   Gold 
aiiJ  Silver. 


Cruciform  Ornaments 


217 


OLis  periods,  but  yet  there  is  notliiny  to  invalidate  the  tradition  which 
assigns  the  more  ancient  portions  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  The 
enamels  must  belong  to  the  same  early  period."  ' 

Every  crown  from  the  days  of  Charlemagne  downward  bears  the 
sacred  symbol,  teaching  the  lesson  of  the  apostle,  "  the  powers  that  be, 
are  of  God." 


Crown  of  Charlumayne.      From  Wheallc) 's  Art  ll'urJ;  in  Gold  and  Silver. 

The  English  crown  royal  is  ornamented  with  crosses  paftei'  and  fleurs- 
de-lis,  symbolizing  the  protecting  power  of  the  Cross  and  humility,  or  as 
some  read  it,  emblematic  of  our  blessed  Lord  and  the  Vir- 

English  Crowns. 

gin.  The  royal  crown  of  S.  Edward,  of  the  same  fashion 
as  that  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  was  kept  in  Westminster  Abbey  until 
the  time  of  the  Great  Rebellion,  when  it  was  stolen  and  sold  in  1642. 
It  was  formed  of  four  crosses  patoncc  and  four  fleurs-de-lis  of  gold. 
Four  circular  bars  meeting  at  the  top  in  the  form  of  a  cross  rose  from 
the   crosses.     At   the   intersection  was  a  mound  of  gold   studded   ^\■ith 

'  Labarte,  Handbook  of  Fine  Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  113  ;  Millington,  Heraldry  in 
History,  Poetry,  and  Romance,  p.  255.  This  author  says  that  this  crown  has  been  borne  by  several 
English  kings  who  held  the  office  of  Archtreasurer  to  the  Roman  Empire.  Lacroix,  Arts  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  p.  127. 


2l8 


History  of  the  Cross 


precious  stones,  surmounted  by  a  cross  of  gold  and  gems,  with  three 
large  oval  pearls,  one  of  them  fixed  at  the  top,  the  other  two  pendent 
from  the  arms  of  the  cross.  The  ancient  fashion  is  preserved  in  the 
Queen  Consort's  crown  in  memory  of  Queen  Editha,  consort  of  Edward 
the  Confessor.' 

The  coronet  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  resembles  the  crown  royal,  with 
the  omission  of  one  of  the  arches.  That  of  the  Princess  Royal  is  com- 
posed of  four  fleurs-de-lis,  two  crosses,  one  of  which  is  in  the  centre,  and 
two  strawberrv  leaves. 


English  Crown. 


Crown  of  Austria. 
From  Berry's  Heraldric  Encyclopedia. 


Crown  of 
Austria, 


The  crown  of  Austria  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  European  diadems. 
It  is  ijarnished  with  costly  gems;  from  the  cap,  bordered  with  fleurs-de-lis, 
rises  an  arched  fillet,  enriched  with  pearls  and  surmounted 
by  a  mound  whereon  is  a  cross,  gemmed  also  with  pearls. 

Another  ancient  crown  is  that  of  Hungary.  "  This  most  venerable 
relic  of  Byzantine  art  is  formed  of  a  broad,  flat  circlet  of  fine  gold,  from 
Crown  of  wliich  Spring  four  arches  supporting  a  cross.      It  was  sent 

Hungary.  ^y. D.   10/2,  by  Michacl  Ducas,  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 

to  the  Duke  of  Hungary,  or,  as  he  is  styled  in  his  enamel  portrait 
]5laced  above  the  circlet,  Geabitras,  King  of  the  Turks.  Next  comes  a 
])i)rtrait  of  Constantinus  Porplu-rogenitus ;  then  one  of  Ducas  himself ; 
the  fourth  and  largest  enamel  represents  Christ  seated,  exactly  as  he  ap- 
pears on  the  bezants  of  the  period.  These  four  portraits  are  placed  at 
the  springing  of  the  arches  that  close  the  top  of  the  crown ;  on  the  front 
of  the  circlet  itself  are  fixed  four  smaller  enamels  of  Michael,  Gabriel,  S. 
George,  and  S.  Demetrius. 

Above  the  medallion  of  Christ  is  a  large  heart-shaped  amethyst, 
below  it  is  a  huge,  rough  sapphire;  four  large  sapphires  are  also  set  equi- 

'  Millington,  Heraldry  in  History,  Poetry,  and  Romance,  p.  254. 


Crucifoi'in  Ornaments 


219 


distant  on  the  circlet,  all  but  one  of  them 
being  unpolished.  Tlie  edges  of  the  cir- 
clet are  closely  studded  with  pearls,  set 
touching  each  other  in  a  row.  The  large 
sap[)hiie  at  the  back  is  surrounded  by  four 
green  stones,  cut  in  an  oblong  form,  but 
their  precise  nature  cannot  be  ascertained. 
In  the  deed  by  which  Queen  Elizabeth  of 
Hungary  pledged  this  crown  to  the  Em- 
peror Frederick  IV.,  the  stones  are  enu- 
merated as  fifty-three  sapphires,  fifty 
rubies,  one  emerald,  and  three  hundred 
and  twenty  pearls.  Here  is  another  proof 
of  the  early  existence  of  the  emerald  in 
Europe,  and  the  correctness  of  the  opinion, 
as  to  the  real  nature  of  the  hyacinth  us, 
for  what  other  gem,  to  judge  from  Claud- 
ian's  account  of  the  robes  and  armor  of 
Theodosius,  should  we  expect  to  see  so 
lavishly  employed  as  this  in  decorations 
of  the  Byzantine  age  ?  "  ' 

In  clearing  away  a  deserted  cemetery 
at  Fuente  di  Guerrazzar,  two  leagues  from 
Toledo,"  was  discovered  the       „         ,„. 

'  Cross  of  King 

crown  of  King  Reccesvin-  R«"svinthus. 
thus,  A.D.  653.  It  is  a  circle  of  fine  gold, 
one  foot  in  diameter,  set  with  thirty  huge 
rubies  and  thirty-five  pearls,  alternating 
-with  sapphires.  The  circle  is  edged  by  two 
borders,  adorned  with  a  running  pattern 
of  Greek  crosses  made  of  pieces  of  carnel- 
ian — cloissonitcs  in  gold.  From  twenty- 
four  little  chains  hang  these  letters  of  gold, 
incrusted  with  carnelian,  like  the  border: 

+     RECCESVINTHUS    REX    OFF'ERET. 

From  the  letters  again  hang  twenty- 

'  King,  Ajitiqitc  Gems,  p.  309 


Crown  of  Reccesvinthus. 

Vllth  Centurj-. 

From  Wheatley's  Art  Work  in  Gold 

and  Sihi-r. 


220 


History  of  the  Cross 


four  pear-shaped  pink  rubies,  forming  a  fringe  all  round  the  crown. 
Lowest  of  all  hangs  a  magnificent  cross,  of  elegant  form,  set  with  very 
large  gems,  and  having  three  pendants  from  the  arms  and  foot. 

"  The  second  crown,  supposed  to  be  the  Queen's,  is  set  with  rubies, 
sapphires,  emeralds,  opals,  and  large  pearls,  and  has  a  fringe  of  rubies 
and  a  pendant  cross,  but  is  altogether  of  a  plainer  make  than  the  first."  ' 
"  This  cross,  itself  indubitably  a  work  of  the  Carlovingian  period,  but 
mounted  upon  a  silver-gilt  foot  of  very  elegant  design  in  the  taste  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  is  preserved  in  the  treasury  of  the  Cathedral  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  The  surface  of  the  gold  is  ornamented  with  arabesque  tracerv, 
and  studded  thickly  with  gems,  set  close  together  in  plain  raised  collets. 
These  consist  of  pearls,  rubies,  sapphires,  amethysts  (one  an  intaglio  of 
the  Three  Graces),  and  emeralds.  At  the  intersection  of  the  arms  of  the 
cross  is  placed  a  magnificent  cameo  on  onyx,  about  three  inches  high 
and  two  and  a  half  wide,  representing  the  laureated  bust  of  Augustus, 

holding  an  eagle-topped  scep- 
tre, a  work  of  the  highest  merit. 
But  the  most  interesting  feature 
that  presents  itself  to  our  notice 
in  this  early  relic  of  the  first 
dawn  of  mediaeval  art,  is  the 
signet  of  Lotharius  himself,  set 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  stem 
of  the  cross,  innnediately  be- 
neath the  cameo  of  Augustus. 
It  is  engraved  on  a  large  oval 
piece  of  rock  crystal,  about  one 
and  three  quarter  inches  high 
by  one  and  a  half  wide,  and 
Brooch  of  Silver  tilagree  Work  (Dale  Uncertain).      represents  the  bust  of  the  King, 

his  head  covered  with  a  close 
fitting  helmet  with  a  slightly  projecting  frontlet,  like  those  of  the  latest 
Roman  period.  Around  the  bust  runs  this  legend,  in  well-formed  Ro- 
man letters: 

-j-     XPE    ADIVVA    IILOIIIARIVM    REG 

" Cliristc  adJHva  Illotltariiiin  Rcgciii,'"   O  Christ,  defend   King  Lothaire. 

'  King,  Aitliqtic  Gems,  p.  308  ;  Lacroix,  Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  125. 


Cruciform  Ornaments  221 

"  The  (jxecution  of  the  engravinj^  is  very  tolerable,  far  bL'tU-r  than 
could  have  been  expected  at  that  date,  A.D.  823,  especially  wlien  we 
consider  the  rudeness  of  the  coinage  of  the  same  period.  It  is  not  the 
work  of  the  Byzantine  school,  for  the  characters  of  the  legend  bear  no 
resemblance  to  those  employed  by  its  artists,  but  are  precisely  the  same 
as  those  seen  on  the  Prankish  stone  and  metal  \\(_)rk  of  the  time  of  this 
monarch.  This  is  by  fai  the  latest  intaglio  of  ascertained  dalte  of  which 
I  have  been  able  to  find  any  trace;  and  its  existence  supports  the  opin- 
ion previously  expressed,  that  the  art  of  engraving  gems  lingered  in 
Europe  to  a  much  later  period  than  is  generally  supposed. 

This  most  splendid  specimen  of  ancient  jeweller's  work  is  admirably 
figured  in  the  magnificent  Mc/aiigcs  d' Archa-ologic,  vol.  i.,  by  MM.  Cahier 
et  Martin."  ' 

There  was  one  article  that  none  but  a  gentleman  dare  wear,  and 
hence,  on  account  of  its  symbolism  and  use,  it  deserves  a  place  in  this 
chapter  as  well  as  the  crown.  It  is  the  sword,  Cross-hilted,  as  became 
a  soldier  of  the  Lord. 

The  whole  equipment  of  a  knight  in  days  of  chivalry  was  symbolical. 
The  spear,  on  account  of  its  straightness,  was  the  emblem  of  truth, 
and  the  iron  head,  of  the  strength  truth  ought  to  possess,     s,     u  ,■       , 

^  &  r  Symbolism  of  a 

The  helmet,  of  shamefastness ;  the  spurs,  of  diligence.  Knight's  Armor. 
The  gorget  was  the  sign  of  obedience;  for  as  the  gorget  went  about  the 
neck,  protecting  it  from  wounds,  so  the  virtue  of  obedience  kept  a 
knight  within  the  commands  of  his  sovereign  and  the  order  of  chi\'alr\^ 
The  shield  showed  the  of^ce  of  a  knight;  for,  as  the  knight  placed  his 
barrier  between  the  king  and  the  people;  and  as  the  stroke  of  a  sword 
fell  upon  the  shield,  and  saved  the  knight,  so  it  behoved  the  knight  to 
present  his  body  before  his  lord  when  he  was  in  danger."^  Most  sacred 
of  all  was  the  sword  whose  hilt  was  fashioned  like  a  cross,  to  remind 
the  wearer  of  his  dut}-  to  Him  who  died  thereon.  Consecrated  upon 
the  altar,  it  was  prized  as  the  knight's  dearest  possession,         _ 

1  si'  Cross-hilted 

and  to  many  a  name  was  given,  so  that  the  trusty  weapon  Swords. 

was  invested  as  it  were  with  a  personality.  King  Arthur  named  his 
E.xcalibar;  Sir  Bcvis    of  Hampton,  Morglay;  Charlemagne  Names  of 

called  his  Fusberta  Joyosa.  The  most  celebrated  sword  P'""°"=  S"'°'"''=- 
of  the  Cid   Ruy  Diaz  of  Bivar  was  Tizona;  he  owned  another  scarcely 

'  King,  Antique  Gems,  p.  305.  '  Millingtoii,  Ileraldiy,  p.  71. 


22  2  History  of  the  Cross 

less  celebrated,  Colada.  Orlando  rejoiced  in  the  possession  of  Durin- 
dana.  Launcelot  of  the  Lake  named  his  Aroundight ;  Siegfried's  was 
called   Balmung  in  the  Xichchins:cn-Licd.      It  was  made  bv  the  divine 


Criicitix  Made  from  an  t)lil  ^pallish  llilt. 


blacksmith,  W'icland.  IMimung  was  anolher  weapon  lent  him  liy  W'it- 
tich.  Edward  tlie  Confessor's  was  called  Curtana,  the  cutter,  a  name 
now  used  for  the  pointless  sword  of  mercy  borne  before  the  sovereigns 
of  Enijland  at  their  coronation. 


Cruciform  Ornaments 


223 


Arthur's  Sword. 


The   romance   of   Arthur    relates    the    marvellous    recommitment   to 

supernatural  hands  of  the  famous  Excalibar,  or  Caliburn,  or  Excalberd,  at 

the  King's  death.     His  soul  could  not  depart  until  that  was 

accomplished,  and  Arthur  sends  Sir  Lukyn  to  throw  it   in 

the  river,  but  the  knight  covets  it — 

"  For  all  of  coleyne  was  the  blade  ; 

And  all  the  hilte  of  precious  stone  : 
And  ever  alacke  !  then  sayd  the  knighte, 
Must  such  a  sword  awave  l)e  throwne  !  " 


Sword  Hilt,  XVUth  Century. 
From  Labarte's  Handbook  of  the  Arts  of  t lie  Middle  Ages  and  Jienaissanee. 

So  he  hides  it.  The  King  knows  the  deception,  and  again  bids  him  do 
his  duty,  but  Sir  Lukyn  again  deceives,  and  throws  in  his  own  sword. 
At  last,  stung  by  the  thrice  repeated  reproaches  of  Arthur,  he  flings  the 
magic  sword  into  the  river. 


2  24  History  of  the  Cross 

"  A  hande  and  an  arme  did  meete  the  sworde 
And  flourishd  three  times  in  the  air, 
Then  sunke  benethe  the  renninge  streme, 
And  of  the  duke  was  seen  noe  mair."' 

Yet  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  claimed  to  have  owned  that  noted 
weapon,  and  gave  it  to  Tancred  of  Sicily. 

"  And  Richard  at  that  time  gaf  him  a  faire  juelle. 
The  good  sword  Caliburne,  which  Arthur  luffed  so  well." 

Upon  the  hilt  of  the  sword  the  word  "  Jesus  "  was  sometimes  en- 
graved, and  an  oath  taken  upon  the  sword  was  held  as  sacred  as  if 
pledged  at  the  altar.  The  poets  are  full  of  allusions  to  this.  Piers 
Plowman  says  that 

"  David  in  his  daiss  dulibed  knights. 
And  did  him  swere  on  her  sword  to  serve  truth  for  ever." 

When  Bernardo  del  Carpio  led  his  troops  to  tlie  pass  of  Roncesvalles 

"  Around  his  banner  flocked  in  scorn 
Of  haught)'  Charlemagne 
And  thus  upon  their  swords  were  sworn 
The  faithful  sons  of  S]:)ain." 

Nor  would  Hamlet  be  content  to  part  company  with  his  co-witnesses 
of  the  ghost  of  the  buried  "  majesty  of  Denmark  "  until  they  complied 
with  his  thrice-reiterated  adjuration  to  swear 

"  Indeed,  upon  my  sword,  indeed." 

And  the  spiritual  visitant  leaves  them  not  until  he  commands  them 

"  Swear  by  his  sword."  ' 

The  solemn  use  of  the  Cross-hilt  when  on  tlie  battlefield  the  dying 
soldier  used  the  weapon  of  war  as  the  symbol  of  the  Prince  of  Peace,  has 
already  been  alluded  to. 

An  interesting  relic  was  exhibitctl  at  a  meeting  of  the  English 
Archaeological  Association  in  1858.  This  was  the  wedding  ring  with 
.     ,     ,  ,„  ,      which  Alailiii  Luther  married  Catharine  Bura,  or  do  Boren. 

Luther  s  Wed- 
ding Ring.  jt  is  made  of  foreign  gold.      On  the  inside  is  engraved  the 

following  in.scription  :  "  D.  RLutine  Luthero  Catherini  Boren,  13  Junii, 

'  Percy,  Reliques  of  Ancient  Poetry.  ''  Hamlet,  act  I,  scene  5. 


Cruciform  Ornaments 


225 


1525,"  the  day  of  his  marri,iL;c.  1  lie  riiij^  forms  an  entire  cross,  on 
which  is  a  fiijiire  of  the  Saviour,  over  whose  head  a  lari^e  ruby  is  set, 
serving  as  a  nimbus,  and  above,  on  a  label,  are  the  letters  I.  N.  R.  I. 
Emblems  of  the  Crucifixion  are  continued  round  the  rini,'.  It  belontjs 
to  a  gentleman  of  noble  family  at  Wittenberg.' 

Dr.  John  Donne  bequeatlied  to  his  friends,  Watton,  Herbert,  Wal- 
ton, I  fall,  and  Duppa,  seals  made  of  bloodstone,  on  which  was  cut  a 
figure  of  our  Saviour  extended  on  an  anchor  instead  of  a  cross.  With 
one  to  Herbert  he  sent  the  following  lines,  referring  to  the  change  of  his 
old  coat  of  arms  from  a  sheaf  of  serpents  to  the  cross: 

"Adopted  in  God's  Family,  and  so 
My  old  coat  lost,  into  new  arms  I  go. 
The  Cross,  my  Seal  in  Bajjtism,  spred  below. 
Does,  by  that  form,  into  an  .'\nchor  grow. 
Crosses  grow  .Anchors  ;  bear,  as  thou  sliouldst  do 
'riiy  Cross,  and  that  Cross  grows  an  Anchor  too. 
But  he  that  makes  our  Crosses  Anchors  thus. 
Is  Christ,  who  there  is  crucified  for  us. 
Yet  with  this  I  may  my  first  Serpents  hold  ; — 
God  gives  new  blessings,  and  yet  leaves  the  old — 
The  Serpent,  may,  as  wise,  ni)'  pattern  be  ; 
My  poison,  as  he  feeds  on  dust,  that  's  me. 
And  as  he  rounds  the  earth  to  murder,  sure 
He  is  my  death  ;  hut  on  the  Cross,  my  cure, 
Crucify  nature  then  ;  and  then  im])lore 
All  grace  from  him,  crucified  there  before. 
Wiien  all  is  Cross,  and  that  Cross  Anchor  grown 
This  Seal 's  a  Catechism,  not  a  Seal  alone. 
Under  that  little  Seal  great  gifts  I  send. 
Both  works,  and  prayers,  pawns,  and  fruits  of  a  friend. 
And  may  that  Saint  that  rides  on  our  great  Seal, 
To  you  that  bear  his  name,  large  bounty  deal." 

After  George  Herbert's  death,  this  seal,  given  to  him  by  Dr.  Donne, 
was  found  wrapped  with  the  following  verse: 

"  When  my  dear  Friend  could  write  no  more, 
He  gave  this  Seal  and  so  gave  o'er. 
When  winds  and  waves  rise  highest,  I  am  sure. 
This  .\nchor  keeps  my  faith,  that  me  secure." 

'  Luther's  arms  were  a  cross  upon  a  rose.     He   jilaced  a  crucifix  in  one  of  his  books,   thus 
showing  that  he  saw  no  error  in  the  use  of  the  symbol. 


Dr.  t)onne's  Seal. 
P'rom   Walton's 
Complcic  A  tigh'r. 


CHAPTER   VII 

PROCESSIONAL   CROSSES 

AS  soon  as  the  Church  dared  to  emerge  from  the  caves  and  holes  of 
the  earth,  wherein  she  had  hid  herself  during  the  first  three  hun- 
dred years  of  the  Christian  era,  the  bride  of  Christ  decked  herself  with 
befitting  ornaments.  Imposing  basilicas,  rich  altars,  fragrant  incense, 
glowing  lights,  emblazoned  banners,  and  jewelled  crosses  were  her 
accustomed  paraphernalia. 

It  was  not  merely  the  dim  recollection  of  the  glories  of  the  Jewish 
Temple  which  prompted  this  befitting  ornamentation,  but  we  may  be- 
lieve that  the  same  spirit  that  ordained  the  ritual  of  the  elder  Church 
moved  the  hearts  of  the  early  Christians  and  inspired  rites,  ceremonies, 
and  garniture,  which  would  bear  symbolic  teaching  throughout  all  time. 
The  propriety   of  the  Bishop,    literally  the  overseer  of 

Early  Use  of 

Processional        the  flock  of  Clu'ist,  liaN'ing  the  symbol  of  the  Cross  borne 

Crosses.  ,      r  i   .  i  i      i         i 

before  him,  was  at  once  acknowledged. 
Among  early  instances  may  be  cited  that  of  S.  Porphyry,  Bishop  of 
Gaza,  A.D.  396;  but  even  in  earlier  times  processional  crosses  were  used. 
To  one,  pre-eminently  the  standard-bearer  of  the  Cross  in  his  century, 
does  the  honor  belong  of  exalting  the  Cross,  like  Constantine's  Laba- 
rttiii.  as  the  standard  of  the  Church  Militant.  When  S.  Chrysostom  was 
Used  b   s  called  upon  to  battle  with  the  Arians,  he  resolved  to  meet 

Chrysostom.  them  Oil  tlicir  own  ground.  To  their  magnificent  proces- 
sions with  choristers,  banners,  incense,  torches,  and  crosses,  he  opposed 
still  more  gorgeous  pomp  and  pagc.mtry.  ami  his  ritual  now  is  acknow- 
ledged as  the  office  of  more  than  sixty  millions  of  Christians.' 

'  The  "  Missionary  Aspect  of  Ritualism,"  by  K.  !•'.  LitlleiLile,  in  the  Church  and  the 
World,  1870,  p.  45.  The  Arians  went  in  procession  through  the  public  places  of  the  city  on 
Saturdays  .md  Sundays,  chanting  hymns  expository  of  their  own  heresy.  S.  Chrysostom  re- 
solved to  countermine  them  in  their  own  way,  "  and  that  the  business  might  be  managed  with 

226 


228 


History  of  the  Cross 


cifti 


Processional  Cross. 
From  Lee's  Glossary. 


Others  profited  by  the  example  of  the  great 
missionary  to  the  Saxons.  When  S.  Augustine 
Cress  Borne  by  landed  in  England,  the  opportun- 
s.  Augustine.       j(.y  ^,^^  ,-,q|.  Jq^).  ^f  impressing  the 

mind  of  the  Kentish  King.  A  solemn  proces- 
sion, chanting  the  Litany,  was  preceded  by  a 
silver  cross,  after  which  was  a  painting  of  the 
Redeemer,  glowing  with  gold  and  color.  S. 
Augustine,  taking  the  symbols  as  his  text, 
preached  to  Ethelbert  of  the  truths  they  set 
forth.  In  like  manner  proceeded  the  Celtic 
evangelizers  of  Germany ;  and  the  conversion 
of  the  great  Russian  Empire  was,  at  the  least, 
expedited  by  the  gorgeous  ceremonial  of  S. 
Chrysostom,  for  when  Vladimir  sent  messen- 
gers to  Constantinople,  the  Muscovite  envoys, 
astonished  at  the  vestments,  the 

Use  in  Germany 

and  constanti-     singing,  the  lights,  the  incense,  and 

nople.  .  ,       ,,  TT-i 

processions,  reported  :  W  hen  we 
stood  in  the  tem[:)le  [the  Church  of  S.  Sophia] 
we  did  not  know  where  we  were,  for  there  is 
nothing  else  like  it  upon  earth ;  there  in  truth 
God  has  His  dwelling  with  men,  and  we  can 
never  forget  the  beauty  we  saw  there.  No  one 
who  has  once  tasted  sweets  \\\\\  afterwards  tak^ 
that  which  is  bitter;  nor  can  we  now  abide  any 
longer  in  heathenism."'  Still  later,  in  the 
twelfth  century,  S.  Otto  of  l^amberg  overawed 
an  infuriated  heathen  mob  in  Stettin  with  no 
carnal  weapon,  but  only  the  Cross  and  the  lit- 
anies of  his  clergy. 

The  Cross  was  taken  from  the  side  of  the 
altar,  and  borne  before  the  procession  of  clergy 

Manner  of  Bear.    ■"'^'    ^'''^V    ^'^    Certain    fixcd    plaCCS, 

ing  the  Cross.       where    it    was   lowered    to  receive 


greater  pomp  and  ceremony  crosses  of  silver  were  made  at  the  Empress'  charge,  and  lighted 
torches  were  borne  before  them."     Cave,  l.ivfs  of  the  Fathers,  p.  476,  ed.  1068. 
'  Mooravief,  Ifist.  of  the  Russian  Church,  chap.  i. 


iwrmnvT 


no-ctrW 


Tiri\tU)X5''l?^ 


Processional  Cross.     From  Ciampini's  J'eh-ya  Moiiimenta. 


229 


230  History  of  the  Cross 

the  devout  kisses  of  the  populace.     These  places  were  called  stations. 
Ciampini  explains  the  term,  as  by  their  very  names  reminding  the  faith- 
ful of  a  military  station,  that  those  baptized  as  soldiers  of 

Originofthe  ^,      .  ,       1  /-1  1      -vr-i-  .  tt  .1 

Name  Llirist  cooiposed  the  Church  Militant.     Hence  the  proces- 

^  '""■  sional  cross  was  at  first  called  the  cni.v  sUUioiialis. 

Anxious  to  honor  the  symbol  of  their  faith,  the  Christians  decked  it 
with  their  choicest  jewels.  Tlie  frescoes  in  the  subterranean  Church  of 
S.  Clemente  at  Rome  exhibit  gemmed  crosses.  Charlemagne,  following 
the  e.xample  of  his  predecessors,  presented  a  cross  covered  with  hya- 
cinths' to  the  Basilica  of  S.  Peter's  at  Rome.  The  value  incited  its  theft, 
and  it  was  replaced  by  Leo  IV.,  who  gave  a  cross  of  the  purest  gold 
adorned  with  hyacinths.  In  after  times  Innocent  II.  supplied  a  cross  of 
silver,  one  hundred  pounds  in  weight. 

Crosses  were  carried  in  processions  to  meet  bishops,  emperors,  kings, 
and  other  distinguished  persons  ;  also  in  litanies  from  a  very  early  period. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  Pope  assumed  the  power  of  grant- 
when  Crosses  '  r  t. 

were  earned.       jjig  peniiission   for  tlicir  use.      It    had   been    borne   before 

Apostolic  legates  since  the  ninth  century.      In  the  eleventh  the  privilege 

was   granted    only   to   such    as    had    received   the  palliuiii. 

By  whom.  -ai  aii*i  r     /- 

Hence  S.  Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  rebuked 
Samuel,  Bishop  of  Dublin,  for  presuming  to  have  the  Cross  borne  before 
liim  wiien  not  confirmed  with  the  pall.'  In  the  twelfth  century  the  right 
was  obtained  from  the  Metropolitans,  and  by  the  thirteenth  all  the  arch- 
bishops had  the  Cross  carried  before  them.  The  third  Council  of  Late- 
ran,  A.D.  1213,  gave  to  the  Patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Antioch,  and 
Jerusalem  authority  to  carry  the  Cross  everywhere  except  in  the  City  of 
Rome,  in  the  presence  of  the  Roman  Pontiff,  or  an  Apostolic  legate 
bearing  the  insignia  of  his  office.  The  Archbishop  of  Ravenna  bears  his 
Cross  not  only  in  his  own  pro\-ince,  but  to  within  three  miles  of  Rome. 
The  Kings  of  Hungary  also  carry  the  Cross,  in  memory  of  King  Stephen, 
to  whom  the  right  was  granted,  in  the  year  looo,  by  Pope  Sylvester  II. 
The  Archbishop  of  Nazareth  had  the  right  of  using  the  Cross  every- 
where, and  the  Archbishop  of  Toleilo,  thriuighout  .Spain. 

'  Of  no  ancient  gem  has  there  been  so  much  dispute  as  the  hyacinth.  De  lioot  and  De  Lact  con- 
sider it  the  common  amethyst.  Midler  says  it  was  a  pale,  purple  stone  ;  I.essing,  a  reddish  lirovvn, 
fiery,  like  the  jacinth.  Considering  the  strict  attention  paid  to  symbolic  colors  by  the  early  church, 
it  is  probaljle  that  the  color  was  blue  or  purple.     See  King,  Precious  Stones,  Gems,  etc.,  ]i.  1(53. 

'  S.  Anselm,  Kpist.,  HI),  iii.,  ep,  l.xvii.,  op.  p.  393,  quoted  in  Rock,  Ch.  of  Our  Fathers,  vol. 
ii.,  p.  225. 


Processional  Cross.     From  Ciampini's  Vetera  jMoiiinicnia. 


231 


2J2  History  of  the  Cross 

The   processional   cross   as   an  emblem  of  authority  was  to  be  con- 
cealed, like  the  pectoral  cross,  when  a  prelate  passed  through  the  diocese 
of  another.'      Disputes   frequently   arose    on    this    matter. 

Why  Concealed.  ^        i   i   •    i  r    t'       i  i     •  i 

\\  illKun  \\  ickwane,  Archbishop  of  \  ork,  complains  to  the 
Pope,  that  «'hile  travelling  in  the  province  of  Canterbury,  A.D.  1280, 
ha\ing  his  Cross  borne  before  him  according  to  ancient  usage,  "  Adam 
de  Hales,  an  officer  of  my  lord  of  Canterbury,  rushed  like  a  madman 
upon  my  attendants  and  scandalously  broke  my  cross  in  pieces."  ' 

Archbishop  \\'inchelsey  wrote  to  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  A.D.  1300, 
commanding  him  to  prevent  the  Archbishop  of  York  from  having  his 
cross  borne  before  him  during  his  progress  through  that  diocese,  the 
laity  were  not  to  kneel  before  him  for  his  blessing,  and  in  all  the  places 
which  he  passed  through,  divine  service  and  the  tolling  of  bells  were 
immediately  to  cease."  " 

i\bout   half  a  century  later,  A.D.   1354,   a  compromise  was  effected 
between  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  and  York.     The  latter  was  per- 
mitted to  have  his  cross  borne  before  him  throughout  the 

Compromise 

between  the         whole  proviiicc  of  Canterbury,  on  condition  of  sending  to 

Archbishops  of 

Canterbury  the  slirinc  of  S.  Thomas  a  Becket  a  golden  image  of  the 

and  York.  ,  ^   ^  ,  .  ,,.,,. 

value  of  forty  pounds,  representmg  an  archbishop  bearing  a 
cross.  The  image  to  be  sent  within  two  months  of  his  consecration, 
either  by  his  chancellor,  or  a  doctor  of  laws,  or  a  kr.ight.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  was  to  enjoy  the  same  privilege  in  the  pro\'ince  of 
York  unconditionally.'  At  this  time,  or  the  year  previous,  it  was 
arranged  that  when  the  two  Archbishops  were  in  the  same  procession, 
their  crosses  should  be  borne  side  by  side,  if  the  road  were  sufficiently 
wide;  that  of  Canterbury  being  on  the  right,  and  that  of  York  on  the 
left.  When  the  way  was  too  narrow  for  both  to  pass  on  abreast,  York 
yielded  the  precedence.^  Until  towards  the  end  of  the  twelfth  century 
no  ecclesiastic,  however  high  his  rank,  presumed  to  have  a  cross  borne 
before  him  in  England  except  the  two  Archbishops.  About  that  time 
the  papal  legates,  though  not  even  bishops,  had  the  Cross  carried  before 
them,  and  wore  mitres,  by  virtue  of  their  (iffice. 

'  Gcorgiiis,  Dc  ritu  Cruris,  quoted  in  Pugin's  Glossary. 

"  "Constitutions"  of  John  Peckham,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  quoted  in  Hart,  EccUs. 
Records,  p.  103. 

'  Wilkins.  Concilia,  vol.  ii.,  p,  265.  ■*  ////(/.,  p.  31. 

'  Rock,  Church  0/  Our  Fathers,  vol.  ii.,  p.  230.  When  Thomas  .i  Becket  returned  from  his 
seven  years'  of  exile,  he  had  his  cross  lu)istcd  high  on  the  ship  that  limui^ht  him  from  France. 


Processional  Crosses.     From  Ciampiui's  I'cti-ni  Muninuiita. 
233 


234 


History  of  the  Cross 


^wjT       Double 

Crucifixes. 


Cardinal  Wolsey  had  "  two  great  crosses  of  silver  whereof  one  was 
for  his  archbishopric,  and  the  other  for  his  legatry."     Such  crosses  were 

woisey-s  presumed  never  to 

Crosses.  b^.     ^f     J^^.^g     COStly 

metal    than    silver,    sometimes 
richly    wrought    of    gold    and 
blazing  with  gems.     Sometimes 
the  simple  Cross  was  used  with- 
^^    out  an  image,  yet  the   double 
crucifix  appears  to 
have  been  not  un- 
common;  this   was   to    present 
the  image  of  our  Lord  both  to 
the  people  and  to  the  prelate. 
When  the  figure  was  attached 
only  to  one  side,  that  was  turned 
towards  the  Archbishop,   as  is 
the  present  custom  when  a  cru- 
cifix is  borne  before  the  Pope. 
Rock  thinks  that  although 
it   was  not  according  to  strict 
ritual    usage,    vet 

Actual  Use  of  a  J 

Patriarchal  there    are    strong 

Cross. 

grounds  for  be- 
lieving that  the  double-barred, 
or  patriarchal  cross,  was  in  a 
few  instances  actually  used. 
Anthony  Beck,  Bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, received  from  Rome  the 
honorary  title  of  the  Jerusalem 
patriarchate.     Hence  he  was  en- 


Ancient  Processional  Cross,  Circ.i  1400. 
From  I'aley's  Manual  of  Gothic  Architcctuye. 


titled  to  an  appropriate  cross;  and  among  his  mortuary  gifts  to  his 
cathedral  is  mentioned  a  silver-gilt  patriarchal  cross,  but  whether  it  was 
mounted  upon  a  pedestal  so  that  it  might  be  used  as  an  altar  cross, 
or  placed  upon  a  staff  is  not  recorded. 

In   Queen   Mary's  Psalter,   a  work   of   the   thirteenth   or  fourteenth 
century,  which  is  preserved  in  the  British   Museum,  a  representation  is 


Processional  Crosses  235 

given  of  an  archbishop  holding  a  patriarchal  cross.  Again,  on  some 
monastic  seals,  S.  Peter  bears  this  symbol  of  power.'  Cardinal  Eorgia 
possessed  a  Greek  double-barred  cross  of  iron,  coated  with  copper,  and 
a  reliquar_\-  also  of  this  shape  is  preserved  in  the  Monastery  of  the  Holy 
Cross,  near  Avellene.  In  an  old  MS.  at  Lambeth,  executed  for  Arch- 
bishop Laud,  the  arms  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  are  acconii)anied 
by  a  staff  patriarchal." 

As  a  double-barred  cross  was  thought  to  indicate  superior  dignity 
above  the  single,  so  a  triple-barred  cross  was  attributed  to  the  Pope. 
This  seems  to  be  merely  an  artistic  invention.      No  actual       ^  ■  ,    „       . 

Tnple-Barred 

cross  of  this  fashion  is  mentioned  in  the  Ordiucs  Ronani,  <=■■  P^pai  cross, 
or  in  any  pontifical  ritual ;  still,  as  a  mark  of  distinction,  the  representa- 
tion has  been  used,  as  at  S.  Denis  in  the  gates  of  wood  brought  from 
Guillon.  Gregory  the  Great  is  represented  as  holding  in  his  hand  a 
triple-barred  cross,  and  the  typical  treatment  may  be  traced  even  to 
the  Catacombs." 

According  to  the  "  Sarum  use,"  the  processional  crosses  used  in 
churches  in  Lent  were  always  of  wood  painted  red,  and  without  the  fig- 
ure of  our  Lord.      From  Easter  until  Ascension  the  crosses 

Color  of  the 

were  of  crystal  or  beryl.      Such  are  mentioned  in  the  inven-       Cross  m  Lent 

ri  1  11  TT*  1/^11,  and  Easter. 

tones  of  the  church  plate  of  Lincoln  Cathedral. 

'  Rock,  Church  of  Our  fa/hers,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  217-222. 

'  Oxford  Glossary  of  Heraldry,  art.  "  Crosier,"  note. 

^  Bosio,  Roma  Sottera  ;  Twining,  Symbols,  pi.  viii.,  fig.  7. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  CROSIER   AND    PASTORAL    STAFF 

PUGIN,    in    his    Glossary,    defines   "  Crosier"    "  A   Cross,    or   staff, 
borne  b\-  an  archbishop     .      .     .     this  lias  often  been  confoLinded 
„    ^    .       .        bv  modern  writers  with  the  pastoral  staff  of  a  bishop,  which 

Confusion  of  -^  ^  ^ 

terms  Crosier       jg  amtc  dissimilar,   beinsj  made  in  the  form   of  a  crook." 

and  Pastoral 

Staff.  The    Oxford  Glossary  of  Htraldry  says,    that   "  the   word 

[crosier]  is  properly  restricted  to  the  crook  of  a  bishop  or  abbot." 
Common  usage  has  applied  one  name  to  two  articles,  which  really  are 
distinct,  but  authority  can  be  cited  for  the  error.  "  Crosier"  may  be 
derived,  not  from  the  Latin  crux,  but  the  French  crossc,  which  is  ap- 
plied to  any  thick  club-ended  article,  ex.  gr..  ituc  crossc,  a  ball  bat,  la 
crossc  d' HI!  inoiisqiict.  the  butt  end  of  a  musket.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
pastoral  staff  means  a  staff  with  a  crook  head,  like  that  of  the  shepherd's 
_  ,  ...  staff,  from  which  it  is  derived.     The  crosier  is  a  staff  or  rod, 

Definition  ' 

of  Crosier.  with   a  crucifomi   termination   at  the  top.      Prelates  above 

the  rank  of  bishops  had  the  right  of  using  both  crosier  and  pastoral  staff. 
Bishops  and  abbots  were  entitled  only  to  the  latter.  In  Canterbury 
Cathedral  are  the  tombs  of  six  archbishops.  In  the  hands  of  three  of 
the  effigies  are  placed  the  crossed  staff,  in  three  the  crook.  On  the  seal 
of  S.  Thomas  k  Becket  he  is  represented  with  the  pastoral  staff."  The 
Monumental  Brass  of  Francis  Malle.  Archbishop  of  Narbonne,  1457.  in 
Paris,  bears  both  the  crook  and  the  crosier.  The  British  Archxological 
Institute,  in  TS4S,  after  investigation,  concluded,  "  that  whilst  arch- 
bishops formerly  exhibited  the  crossed  staff  as  denoting  their  metro- 
politan dignity,  they  also  on  ordinary  occasions  used  the  crooked  staff 
which  tj-pified  their  pastoral  charge  over  their  own  dioceses,  as  in  the 
case  of  other  bishops.  The  carrying  of  such  a  cross  was  a  mark  that  he 
claimed  juiisdiction  there." 

'  Gciilleman's  Ma};.,  Novemljer,  1848. 
236 


The  Crosier  and  Pastoral  Staft 


It  has  been  supposed  tliat  tlie  niisaiiplication  of  the  name      r^^^ 
crosier   to   the   pastoral    staff    crept   in    use   from   the   bearers  \^}/&M 
(croysers)  of  the  processional  cross,  or  the  bishop's  staff.     Prop-  |^£/^  | 
erly,  it  belongs  to  the  insignia  of  the  degree  above  the  bishops, 
the  archbishops.      S.  Samson,  Archbishop  of  York,  in  the  sixth 
century,   is  said  to  have  borne  one,  as  did  also  S.  Caisarius, 
Archbishop  of  Aries,  a  contemporary.      In  the  "  Anglo-Saxon 
period  there  is  nothing  positive,  although  we  find  that  then  a 
procession  was  often  headed  by  a  clerk  carrying  a  golden,  or 
silver,  crucifix,  in  like  manner  as  did  S.  Augustine  when  he  met 
King  Ethelbert,  and  the  Abbot  Ceolfrid  when  he  started  from 
Wearmouth  on  his  pilgrimage  to  Rome."  '     Here  it  is  a  pro- 
cessional cross  or  crosier  that  is  spoken  of. 

By  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  the  custom  formally  be- 
gan, both  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  Continent,  for  all  arch- 
bishops to  have  carried  before  them,  by  one  of  custom  in 
their  chaplains,  a  staff,  terminated,  not  like  that  xuh  Century, 
of  a  bishop,  with  a  crook  like  a  shepherd's,  but  with  a  small 
cross  richly  ornamented  with  jewels.  Romish  authorities  claim 
its  origin  from  that  See.  Afterwards,  primates,  then  arch- 
bishops in  some  parts  of  Christendom,  were  allowed  its  use, 
and  by  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  it  became  a 
general  insignia  of  the  latter. 

Formerly,  the  ceremony  of  the  reception  of  the  Cross  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  was  very  impressive.  As  the 
Primate  of  all  Endand  rode  slowlv  through   his 

■^  '  Manner  of 

See  upon  the  day  of  his  enthronization,  he  was        Reception  of 

the  Cross. 

met  by  a  long  procession,  in  the  midst  of  which 

came  one  of  the  monks  of  Christ's  Church,  bearing  the  archi- 

episcopal  cross.      When  the  archbishop  caught  the  first  view  of 

this  he  threw   himself  from   his  horse  down   upon   the  earth,       Crosier. 

and  in  this  attitude  of  reverence  and  humility  awaited  with      '^°'"„" 

a)-y  of  1  erms 

outstretched  arms  the  approach  of  the  sacred  symbol.  Then  used  in  Brit- 
the  monk  who  bore  the  cross,  standing  over  him,  warned  the  '^''H"'"!^''')'- 
prelate  of  his  future  dut}-  to  love,  defend,  and  govern  well  the  Church 
entrusted  to  his  pastoral  charge.     The  Cross  was  then  put  into  the  hands 

'  Rock,  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  vol.  ii.,  p.  223. 


238 


History  of  the  Cross 


of  the  archbishop,  who  received  it  kneeling,  and  im- 
mediately transferred  it  to  that  chaplain  whom  he  had 
chosen  for  his  cross  bearer,  or  ci-oyscr.  Then  arising 
from  the  ground  the  archbishop  followed  the  proces- 
sion, which,  chanting  Psalms,  brought  him  to  the  walls 
of  Canterbury.  When  the  gates  were  reached,  the  pri- 
mate, putting  off  his  shoes,  proceeded  barefoot,  even 
up  to  the  high  altar  of  his  cathedral,  -where,  being  robed 
in  his  chasuble  and  wearing  \\\s  /<alliinn,  or  pall,  for  the 
first  time,  he  consecrated  the  holy  Eucharist,  and  was 
in  due  form  installed  in  his  chair. 

The  first,  last,  and  only  time  when  the  archbishop 
touched  his  cross,  was  upon  this  first  primatical  visit  to 
his  cathedral;  ever  after  it  was  borne  by  his  crovscr. 
At  those  parts  of  the  liturgy  where  the  bishop  should 
do  so,  the  archbishop  held  in  his  left  hand  the  usual 
pastoral  staff,  not  his  archiepiscopal  cross.'  Collier 
says  that  the  archiepiscopal  cross  was  delivered  before 
the  pall.'  Rock,  on  the  contrary,  says:  "  Until  he  had 
gotten  his  pall  from  the  Roman  Pontiff,  no  archbishop 
might  let  the  cross  be  carried  before  him  ;  hence  it  was 
that  S.  Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  admonished 
Samuel,  Bishop  of  Dublin,  to  leave  off  doing  so."  ' 

The  origin  of  the  pastoral  staff  has  been  lost  in  an- 
tifiuity.      Some  have  traced  it  to  the  Roman  Li/nns,* 

'  Rock,  C/iurcli  of  our  Falhers,  vol.  ii.,  p.  227,     In  tlie  Golden  Le;^cnd 
\^■e  read  of  Thomas  a  Becket's  martyrdiMii:  "  .Vnd  one  Syr  Edwarde  Gryme 
that  was  his  croyser  put  forth  his  arme  with  the  crosse  to  bere  of  the  stroke, 
and  the  stroke  smote  the  Crosse  on  sondre,  and  his  arme  almoost  of." 
Ed.  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  fol.  Ixvi.     .-\Uhough  tlie  archliishops  always  had 
their  crosses  borne  before  them  by  their  bagttli  or  croyser^  never  touching 
it  with  their  own  hands,  save  on  the  day  of  their  consecration,  yet  of  S. 
Thomas  a  Becket  we  read  that  on  one  occasion  he  entered  Parliament 
carrying  in  his  own  hand  his  cross  and  refusing  to  allow  another  to  do  his 
office,  although   the   Bishop  of    Hereford  proffered  his  services.     Rock  gives  other  instances: 
Church  of  Otir  Fathers,  vol.  ii.,  p.  22S. 
■  Ecclcs.  Hist.,  iii.,  ]i.  450. 
'  Church  of  Our  Falhers,  vol.  ii.,  \i.  225. 

■*  The  IJtuus  was  kept  in  the  capital  from  the  time  of  Romulus,  but  was  lost  when  the  Gauls 
sacked  Rome,  .\fterwards  it  was  found  liuried  deep  in  the  ashes  while  everything  else  was  con- 
sumed. riutarLJi,  Life  of  X lima;  see  also  "  Lituus  of  the  Ancient  \<mv.s.W!,,"  Arcliicologia, 
vol.  xix. 


Crosier. 
From  Lee's  Glossary 


The  Crosier  ami  Pastoral  Staff 


239 


but  it  lias  descended  from  more  ancient  times.  "  From  the  earliest 
monuments  in  sacred  or  profane  art  —  from  the  most  archaic  fictile  vases 
of  Greece  and  Sicily,  as  well  as  from  the  oldest  frescoes  in  The  Pastorai 
the  Roman  Catacombs,  we  find  that  during  all  periotls,  and  ^''''^• 

among  every  nation,  a  wand  was  consitlcred  the  emblem  of  power  and 
conmiand  ;  so  has  it  continued 
to  be,  antl  still  is,  under  one  form 
or  another,  from  the  King's 
sceptre  down  to  the  lowliest 
staff  of  office."  '  Homer  places 
a  royal  sceptre  in  the  hand  of 
Achilles.  In  ancient  mytholo- 
gies the  gods  are  armed  with 
this  insignia  of  power.  To 
Mercury's  caduceus,  as  his 
symbolic  wand,  especially  when 
conducting  the  souls  of  the  de- 
parted, reference  has  already 
been  made.  The  curx'cd  staff 
of  the  Egyptian   deities  might 

serve  as  a  pattern  for  a  modern  pastoral  staff.^  When  the  God  of  Israel 
sent  Moses  to  deliver  his  people,  a  rod  was  the  instrument  of  his  mira- 
cles (Ex.  iv.,  20);  when  a  token  was  to  be  given  of  a  perpetuated  dele- 
gated authority,  Aaron's  rod  laid  up  before  the  Lord  budded  and 
brought  forth  (Numb,  xvii.,  8). 

The  origin  of  the  pastoral  staff  was  probably  to  support  the  feeble- 
ness of  the  aged  shepherd  of  the  little  flock,  but  in  time  it  became  the 
acknowledged  emblem  of  the  overseeing  care  of  a  bishop.  In  the  ser\'- 
ice,  during  the  reading  of  the  Gospel,  the  staves  were  laid  down.  That 
there  was  a  practical,  as  well  as  a  symbolical  use  of  these  staves  is  shown 
by  examples  both  ancient  and  modern.  Severius,  Bishop  of  Cologne, 
who  died  A.D.  400,  used  his  as  a  walking  staff.  In  the  Greek  Church  at 
the  present  day  the  staves  are  barely  higher  than  the  hand. 

The  earliest  example  of  a  pastoral  staff  to  which  we  can  refer  with 

'  Rock,  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  vol.  ii.,  p.  183. 

^  The  Egytian  deities,  as  it  will  be  remembered,  liear  in  one  band  the  iriix  nnsatn,  in  the 
other  they  usually  carry  a  curved  staff,  the  Egy|)tian  symbol  of  purity.  Wilkinson,  Ancient 
Egyptians,  vol.  ii.,  p.  2O6. 


Tau-Shaped  Pastoral  StafT  of  Carved  Ivory, 
Limburg.      From  Lee's  Glossary. 


240 


History  of  the  Cross 


i^ 


S' 


Early  Example. 


precision  is  that  of  Gaudentius,  Bishop  of  Brescia,  cir.  A.D, 
387.     After  that  time  we  find  that  Csesarius,  Bishop  of 
Aries,  A.D.  502-542,'  who  has  been  claimed 
by  some  as  the  inventor,  had  his  staff  borne 
before  him  by  one  of  his  clerks.     The  fourth  Council  of 
Toledo,  A.I-).  589,  decreed  that  if  a  bishop  were  unjustly  de- 
posed, his  staff  with  other  insignia  shall  be  returned.     Isidore, 
Bishop  of  Seville,  A.D.  595-636,  is  our  next  \\itness;  contem- 
porary with  him  was  S.  Remigius,  who  died  about  this  time, 
and  bequeathed   to  one  of   his  friends    Cainbuttam  argcntain 
fignratain.     "The  very  word,  too,"  says  Rock,  "  Cainbiitta, 
or  crook-headed  walking-stick,  is  borrowed  by  the  Church  from 
the  Armoric,  or  rather,  our  own  l^ritish  tongue."  ' 

In  Magri's  Hicroh-xicon  are  engra\-ings  of  the  pastoral  sta\-es 
of  S.  Gregory  the  Great,  A.D.  590.  and  Gelasius  II.,  A.D.  11 18. 
The  former  is  really  a  crosier,  as  it  bears  a  little  cross  on  its 
top;  the  latter  is  terminated  with  an  egg-shaped  knob,' 

In  the  monastery  of  Vallombrosa  are  preserved  all  the  pas- 
toral staves  from  the  time  of  the  founder,  Gualbert,  in  the 
eleventh  century,  to  the  present  day.  The  first  is  a  simple 
Tau,  the  next  somewhat  resembles  an  adze,  and  gradually  the 
head  bends  into  a  crook.''  In  the  early  Anglo-Saxon  Church 
the  termination  was  a  knob,  as  may  be  seen  from  tlie  cut  given 
from  a  consecration  service.      ( Sec  page  2^2.) 

The  Greek  Church  has  preserved  in  this  matter,  as  in  more 

important  ones,  a  closer  adherence  to  the  customs  of  the  early 

Catholic  Church,  the  patcrcssa,  or  pastoral  staff. 

Pastoral  Staff 

in  the  Greek         bciug  a  Straight  stick  used  to  lean  upon,  and  not 

Church. 

much  higher  than  the  hand;  it  was  usually  made 
of  ebony  and  ivory,  the  handle  often  formed  of  intertwining 
serpents.  I''ig.  i  is  the  usual  form ;  Fig.  2  is  from  the  icon  of 
S.  Demetrius  of  Rostoff."     (Sec page  2J.2.) 

'  Knclv,  Church  of  Our  Fnlhers,  vol.  ii.,  y.  182,  note. 
'//W.,  p.  1S4. 

'.See  "Bacillus"  and  "  Mitra."  Magri,  Venice,  eil.  1735,  quoted  in  Rock, 
vol.  ii.,  ji.  206,  note. 

■"Forsyth,  /tafy,  p.  83. 

'  Neale,  /fist.  Eastern  Church,   Introduction,  vol.  i.,  p.  314;  see  also  King, 
Greek  Church  in  liitssia,  p.  38  and  plates  vii.,  ix. 


Pastoral 

Staff. 

From  Lee's 

Glossary. 


The  Crosier  ami  Pastoral  Staff 


241 


In  the  twelfth  century  pastoral  staves  were  slightly  ornamented,  per- 
haps a  century  earlier.  A  fan-shaped  staff,  presumed  to  be  of  the 
eleventh    century,   is  one  of   the   ornaments   of   the   South 

^  Ornamentation. 

Kensington  Museum,  acquired  at  the  cost  of  £200.  In  the 
fourteenth  and  tlftecuth  centuries  ivory,  gold,  silver,  and  enamel  were 
freely  used,  so  that  the  staff,  apart 
from  its  artistic  value,  was  of  great 
worth  and  became  a  temptation  even 
to  prelates,  for  it  is  recorded  that 
Odo,  Bishop  of  Hayeux,  stole  ("  con- 
veyed," as  the  more  courtly  Pistol 
would  express  the  act  of  such  a  high 
dignitary)  a  staff  from  Durham  Cath- 
edral.' 

Sometimes  the  staves  were  made 
of  bone  and  wood,  symbolizing  the 
hardness  of  the  Law  and  symboi.sm  of 
the  mildness  of  the  Gos-  Material, 

pel.  The  crook  reminded  the  bear- 
ers of  a  shepherd's  office  to  restrain 
and  to  reclaim  the  wandering  lambs. 
The  lower  end  is  shod  with  iron,  for 
the  motto  must  be  appropriate 


'  Ciirva  trahit  initcs 
Pars  piingi/  acuta  rcbclks. ' 


Pastoral  Staff.     From  Lee's  Glossary. 

Diiiii  iratus  fucris  iiiiscricordice 


Often  on  the  curvature  was  inscribed 
rccordahcris,  tic  oh  culpaiu  grcgis  ira  tiirhct  in  Pastorc  oculain  ratiouis  " — 
/.  c,  "  When  thou  art  angry,  thou  shalt  remember  mercy,  lest  wrath  for 
the  sin  of  the  people  disturb  the  discernment  of  judgment  in  the  pastor." 
Sometimes  upon  the  knob  separating  the  crook,  or  "  cruche-head."  as  it 
was  anciently  called,  from  the  staff,  was  the  word  lunno,  to  remind  the 
bishop  that  he  is  of  like  passions  with  his  flock,  and  near  the  iron  ferule 
W3.S  par cc,  spare,  lest  he  should  forget  that  to  the  merciful  only  mercy  is 
accorded."     Upon  the  knob  of  the  pastoral  staff  of  Raguefredus,  Bishop 

'  DiiL^dale,  I\Ionasticon,  vol.  i.,  p.  516. 

'  Durandus  sums  up  the  whole.     "  .At  ilie  consecration  of  a  bishop  the  consecrator  says  to  him, 

^Aaipe,  bactilum  pastorales  officii,  lit  sis  in  corrigendis  vitiis  pie  salvias  '     The  apostle  says 
16 


242 


History  of  the  Cross 


of  Chartres,   who  died  A.  D.   960,   were  represented    six  vices  overcome 
by  their  corresponding  virtues. 

Faith,  Chastity,  Charity,  Temperance,  Bounty, 

Peace, 
Idolatry,   Impurity,   Envy,  Ghittony,  Avarice, 

Strife.' 

In  tlie  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the 
head  was  often  ornamented  with  symbohc  fig- 

Ornamentation       "■'^■^-  ^"'-''^  ^S  S.  Michacl  slaving  the 

of  the  Crook.  dragon,  the  serpent  being  formed 
by  tlie  crook,''  an  allusion  to  the  rod  of  Moses, 
and  also  the  symbol  of  Prudence  and  Wisdom. 
The  unicorn  was  also  appropriately  used. 
It  is  an  early  Christian  symbol,  adopted  from 
remote  antiquity ;  for  it  appears  among  the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics  and  the  allegorical  ani- 
mals in  the  Persian  mj-thology  ;  it  is  represented 
on  the  walls  of  Persepolis,  sometimes  A\ith.  at 
Pastoral  Staff  with  Knob.    From   others  without,  wings,  engaged  in  combat  with 

Rock's  C/iiiir/i  o/Otir  Fa/Aers.  „,„,.."  ,  ,  ,     , 

a  lion.  1  lie  Christians  also  adopted  the  pagan 
significance  as  a  symbol  of  Purity  and  Strength,  to  which  they  added 
that  of  Chastity,  as  it  was  believed  that  if  the  animal  soiled  its  skin,  it 
pined  away  and  died.      The  horn  of  the  unicorn  \\'as  often        2.  i. 

used  by  the  Fathers  as  a  type  of  the  Cross,'  for  which  it  had      ^r^.     (^-S* 
also  a  peculiar  significance,  it  being  popularly  supposed  that 
in  cups  made  from  this  material  poison  became  innocuous. 

(I  Cor.  iv.  21),  '  Shall  I  come  to  you  with  a  rod?'  By  the  pastoral  rod  or  staff 
may  be  understood  the  sacerdotal  power  which  Christ  conferred  when  He  sent 
the  Apostles  to  preach,  commanding  them  to  take  staves.  Moses  was  sent  into 
Egypt  with  a  rod.  The  staff,  therefore,  may  be  viewed  as  a  token  both  from  the 
Law  and  the  Gospel.  For  Moses  at  the  command  of  tlie  Lord  had  a  rod  which 
performed  the  most  stui)endous  miracles.  By  the  pastoral  staff  is  likewise  under- 
.stood  the  authority  of  doctrine.  For  by  it  the  infirm  are  supported,  the  waver- 
ing are  confirmed,  those  going  astray  are  drawn  to  repentance.  It  resembles, 
and  is  called  a  crook,  in  allusion  to  tlial  used  by  shepherds  to  draw  back  and 
recall  the  sheep  of  their  flock  which  liave  i;one  astray."  Pugin,  Glossary,  art. 
"  Pastoral  Staff." 

Ulnd.  ,^"'"'"f 

I  ateressa. 
''Pistolesi,  //  Valicaiio,  vol.  iii.,  plate  Ixxiii. 

'Justin   Martyr  on   Deut.  xxxiii.  17,  "  Ilis  horns  are  like  the  horns  of  unicorns;  with  thein 

he  shall  push  tlie  people  together  to  the  ends  of  the  earth." — Dial,  -with  Typ/io.,  §  gi. 


The  Crosier  and  Pastoral  Staff 


243 


Pastoral  Staff  of  S.  Boniface. 
From  rv\ining's  Syinbols. 


Ill  the  Miildlc  /\i;cs,  the  unicorn  was  an  cnihlem  of  the  Incarnation, 
for  it  was  siipposetl  th.it  it  could  be  caui;lit  and  tametl  only  by  a  pui'e 
virgin;  hence  in  art,  the  \'irgin  became  a  type  of  the  blessed  \'irgin,  the 
unicorn  that  of  her  Son.  From  its  love  of  solitude  it  was  judged  to  be 
peculiarly  ap[)ropriate  to  the  stafT  of  an  abbot. 
An  early  example  is  the  staff  of  S.  Boniface, 
which  is  preserved  at  l-'iikla,  Cjerman\',  and  is 
of  the  seventh  or  eighth  century.' 

Bishops  were  formerly  invested  with  the 
pastoral  staff  and  ring  by  the  king.  S.  Anselm 
was  hurried   into  the   presence  of 

,.,.,,.  ^,      ,  .      .  ...        Bishops  Receive 

vV  ilham  Rufus,  and  these  msigma      the  stafffrom 
of  office  being  thrust  upon  him,  he  ^    '"^' 

was  forced  into  the  Church  while  the  Tc  Dcuin 
was  chanted,  although  he  objected  to  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  See  of  Canterbury  on  the  ground  of  being  a  subject  of  Nor- 
mandy." 

As   a   reminder  of   delegated   authority   the    crook   was 

Crook  Turned 

turned  toward  the  consecrator  when  he  delivered  the  staff  Toward  the 
into  the  hand  of  the  ordained  prelate." 

In  motiern  times  the  Pope  does  not  use  a  pastoral  staff  except  in  the 
diocese  of  Treves.  Two  reasons  are  assigned  by  Thomas  Aquinas  and 
Durandus;  one  that  the  Pope's  power  is  not  limited  (the  The  Pope's  use 
curvature  of  staff  implying  jurisdiction  over  a  fold  as  a  of  the  staff, 
shepherd,  whilst  the  Pontiff  claims  unlimited  sovereignty,  the  other,  in 
commemoration  of  a  miracle.  S.  Eucharius,  the  first  bishop  of  Treves, 
raised  to  life  his  friend  S.  Maturus  by  the  staff  which  he  received  from 
S.  Peter.  Honorius,  Autun,  and  Peter  of  Cluny  record  this  miracle. 
Egbert,  Archbishop  of  Treves,  a.D.  980,  obtained  this  staff  from 
Werinus,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  to  which  place  it  had  been  transferred 
by  the  former  Archbishop  Bruno.      This  history  is  engraved  on  its  case.' 

But  that  the  Bishops  of  Rome,  in  early  times,  used  staves  is  indubit- 
able. The  staves  of  Gregory  the  Great  and  Gelasius  have  been  referred  to. 
Paschal  II.  was  consecrated  A.D.  1099,  and  special  mention  is  made  of 
the  placing  of  the  staff  in   his  hand.      Until  the  twelth  centurv  at  least. 


'  Twining,  Symbols,  pi.  Ixxxv,,  fig.  i. 
'' Eadmer,  Hist.  Canliinr,  lib.  i..  p.  i6. 


^  Purchas,  Dircctoriitm  Au^licaniiin,  p.  157. 
*  Pugin,  Glossarv,  art.  "  Pope." 


244  History  of  the  Cross 

it  seems  that  this  symbol  of  Episcopal  jurisdiction  was  used  in  the  See  of 
S.  Peter  as  well  as  in  others.  Luitprand,  Bishop  of  Cremona  A.D.  964, 
was  an  eye-witness  of  the  deposition  of  Pope  Benedict  V.  He  says, 
"  After  this  he  put  off  from  him  the  pallium,  which  together  with  the 
pastoral  staff  that  he  carried  in  his  hand  he  gave  up  to  the  Pope,  which 
staff  the  Pope  broke  and  showed  it  to  the  people."  ' 

When  a  bishop  was  deposed   we  have  seen  th.it  his  staff  was  taken 

from  him  and   sometimes  broken.      The   Bishop  of    Dorchester,    at   the 

Svnod   held   bv   Leo   IX.,    had   great  difficulty  in   prevent- 

Staff  Taken  ' 

Away  at  ing    liis   Staff    from    being    broken,    as   it    was   proved   that 

Deposition.  ,  .  r     \    •  ^        •         i  \  i-  t*- 

he  was  ignorant  of  Ins  duties.  According  to  tradition, 
when  the  Archbishop  Lanfranc,  at  the  desire  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
would  ileprive  S.  Wulstan,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  of  his  diocese,  because 
the  Anglo-Saxon  prelate  coidd  not  speak  the  hinguage  of  the  Normans, 
S.  Wulstan  refused  to  give  up  his  bishopric  to  any  one  save  his  old  sov- 
ereign, and  proceeding  to  his  grave  in  the  Church  of  Westminster,  where 
the  council  of  the  bishops  was  then  assembled,  thrust  his  pastoral  staff 
into  the  marble  tomb  of  the  late  King,  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  left  it 
standing.  The  grave  recognized  the  pious  trust,  and  retained  it  so  firmly 
fixed  that  no  hand  but  that  of  its  rightful  owner  could  withdraw  it.' 

The  pastoral  staff  was  also  given  to  abbots  and  abbesses  at  their  con- 
secration.    The  latter  also  recei\-ed  a  ring,  which  was  not  bestowed  upon 
the  former  unless  his  were  a  mitred  abbev.     According  to 

staff  Given  to  ' 

Abbots  and  tile  prcseiit   Roman   Pontifical,  the  abbots  receive  the  staff, 

Abbesses.  t         i         t-        i      i 

but  not  the  abbesses.  In  the  English  convents  under  the 
Roman  rule,  a  remembrance  of  it,  according  to  the  "  Sarum  use,"  is  pre- 
served, a  staff  being  placed  by  the  side  of  tlieir  chair  in  the  choir.' 

It  has  been  asserted  that  in  monuments,  abbots  are  distinguished 
from  bishops  by  holding  the  staff  in  the  right  hand  while  bestowing  the 
benediction  with  the  left,  but  this  rule  was  not   strictl}-  observed.'     An 

'  Rock,  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  vol.  ii.,  ]>.  20I',  iicile.  .According;  to  Mosheini  it  would 
seem  that  I.eo  was  deposed,  not  Benedict, 

''  Henry  of  Huntington,  Hist.,  Ivi,  ;  Archaologia,  xvii.,  p.  37. 

'^  Ailrediis  Ahbas  Ricvallis  dc  I'ita  ft  .Miraculis  Kdwardi  Con/.  Dticin  Scriptorcs,  col.  406, 
quoted  in  Rock,  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  vol.  ii..  ]>.  196. 

'  Ibid.,  ]).  ig4.  "Several  cliurcli  monuments  show  us  abbesses  with  the  pastoral  staff." 
One  of  I.ady  Montacute's  daughters,  who  became  an  abbess,  is  represented  on  her  tomb  in 
Oxford  Cathedral,  "  having  her  staff  leaning  against  her  left  shoulder." 

'  Oxford  Glossary  of  Hera/dry,  art.  "  Crosier." 


The  Crosier  and  Pastoral  Staff  245 

erroneous  statement  is  t;iven  by  a  liiL^li  antliiirity  tliat  "  a  bisho])  carried 
his  staff  with  the  crook  turned  outwards,  to  denote  liis  jurisdiclicjn  over 
a  diocese,"  an  abbot  with  his  inward,  /.  i\,  "  towards  liini-  Manner  of  hoW- 
self  to  signify  that  his  jurisdiction  reached  over  the  nieni-  "hk  the  staff, 
bers  of  his  own  house.'  J5ut  there  is  nothing  in  any  rituaUstic  writer 
to  favor  such  a  view,"  and  the  testimony  of  the  monuments  is,  tiiat 
the  position  of  tiie  staff  antl  hand  in  benediction  was  common  to 
botli.  The  Brass  of  John  Estney,  yVbbot  of  Westminster,  A.i>.  1498, 
represents  him  with  the  crook  turned  outwards  and  giving  iiis  blessing 
with  the  rigiit  liand.  S.  Cuthbert  is  represented  holding  his  staff  tLU'iicd 
inward.  So  also  is  the  effigy  of  a  fjishop  in  Temple  Church.  In  the 
Louterell  Psalter  an  abbess  turns  her  staff  outwards.  In  Litchfield 
Catheilral  there  is  a  statue  of  a  bisliop  with  the  crook  turned  inward." 

It  has  also  been  asserted  that  the  abbot's  staff,  by  way  of  distinction 
from  that  of  a  bishop,  must  have  a  long  linen  napkin  attached  to  it  below 
the  crook;  that  this  "  was  generally  laid  aside  by  the  abbots  of  exempt 
abbeys,  but  is  always  seen  attached  to  the  crosiers  of  abbesses."  '  The 
only  formal  sanction  for  such  a  rule  came  from  S.  Charles  Borromeo^ 
there  is  no  rubrical  authority  and,  whatever  may  have  been  the  custom 
in  Italy  during  the  time  of  the  archbishops  of  Milan,  no  such  distinction 
was  made  in  England.^ 

The  vcxilhun  probably  was  not  a  mark  of  difference,  but  merely  a 
siidariinn,  or  napkin,  used  to  prevent  the  staff  from  being  tarnished  by 
the  warmth  of  the  hand,  or  the  copper  beneath  the  s^ildinsr         „     ,, 

^   ^  t>  fc>  Vexillum  as 

from  gi\'ing  to  the  haiul  an  unpleasant  odor.      This  veil  was         a  Sudarium. 

'  Maskell,  Monuinenta  Kittialia  Ecchsia  Anglicaiur.  vol.  iii.,  p.  137. 

°  Rock,  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  vol,  ii.,  p.  210, 

■*  For  other  examples,  see  Ibiii.,  p.  20S  ;  also  Cutts,  Slabs  and  Monuments.  In  the 
monumental  tomb  of  Bishop  B.  T.  Onderdonk  (the  exquisite  workmanship  of  that  accomplished 
architect,  Richard  Upjohn),  in  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  the  crook  is  turned  imuard.  In 
future  years  some  wiseacre  of  an  archceologist  may,  perhaps,  discover  that  it  was  symbolical  of 
his  suspension  from  the  duties  of  his  ofSce. 

■*  Milner,  on  the  "  Limerick  Crosier,"  Archaologia.  vol.  xxii.  ;  Gloss,  of  Heraldry,  "Crosier." 

'  "Bacillus  pastoralis  .  .  .  orario  ant  sudario  non  ornatur  si  episcopalis  est  quo 
iiisigni  abbatialis  ab  illo  distinguitur"  Acta  F.ccl.  Mediolan.  De  Bacttlo  Pastorali  Instruct. 
Supell.  Eccl,  lib.  ii.,  p.  627,  quoted  in  Rock,  vol.  ii.,  p.  21  r.  The  vexillum  is  attached  to  the 
staff  of  Bishop  John  de  Sheppy,  of  Rochester,  Ob.  1360;  Bishop  Vasey  of  Exeter,  cir.  sixteenth 
cent.  :  John  Estney,  Abbot  of  Westminster,  1498.  The  Brass  of  Bishop  Oldham  of  Exeter 
represents  his  as  rolled  two  or  three  times  around  his  staff.  It  is  shown  also  upon  the  staff  of 
William  of  Wykeham  in  Winchester  Cathedral, — Ruck,  vol.  ii.,  p.  211,  Gentleman's  Mag.. 
Dec,  1S63,  p.  692.  In  the  A'uremberge  Chronicle  are  many  woodcuts  of  bishops  with  the  napkin 
fastened  by  a  string  to  the  top,  which  is  cajjped  by  a  funnel-shaped  ornament. 


246  History  of  the  Cross 

made  either  of  white  silk,  or  of  linen,  with  a  gold  fringe  at  the  lower 
edge,  and  one  or  more  tassels  depending  from  it. 

An  interesting  relic,  a  crosier  or  pastoral  staff  belonging  to  the  non- 
„  ,  jurors   ^vas,    until    iS^Q,  preser\'ed    in    the    family   of   John 

Crosier  Belonging  J  -'^      ^  -  ■' 

to  Non-jurors.       Crossley,  Escj.,  of  Scaitcliffe,  near  Todmer,  England. 

Pastoral  staves  were  borne  before  the  cofifin  at  funerals,  and  either 
buried  with  the  deceased  prelate,  or  suspended  over  the  tomb.  When 
represented  on  the  tomb  they  were  sometimes  placed  on  the  right,  some- 
times on  the  left  liand ;  at  other  times  athwart  the  effigy.  There  may 
have  been  a  symbolical  reason  which  has  been  lost. 

The  use  of  the  pastoral  staff,  crosier,  and  processional  cross  has  con- 
tinued almost  without  intermission  from  the  time  that  the  Church 
emerged  from  the  Catacombs  unto  this  day.  The  first  Prayer-Book  of 
,  „  ,      Edwarcf  VI.  ordered  that  "  whenever  the  Bishop  shall  cele- 

Present  at  Holy  ^ 

Communion.  bratc  tlic  Holy  Commuuion  in  the  church  or  execute  any 
other  public  ministration,  he  shall  have  .  .  .  hi^ />irsh>r/i/ sttr^  in  his 
hand,  or  else  borne  or  holden  before  by  his  chaplain." 

Pastoral  staves  were  carried  at  the  coronation  of  Edward  VI.  and  of 
Elizabeth,  at  the  latter,  by  Archbishop  Cranmer  himself,  i.  c. ,  probably 
by  his  croyscr.  The  Hicrurgia  Anglicaiia  gives  instances  from  that  time 
to  the  present.'  Among  others,  "  The  crosier  or  pastoral  crook  of  Arch- 
bishop Laud  with  the  walking  stick,  which  supported  his  steps  in  his 
ascent  to  the  scaffold  .  .  .  have  been  lateh- deposited  "  in  S.  John's 
College,  Oxford."  At  the  funeral  of  that  stout  anti-Romanist  and  true 
Catholic,  John  Cosin,  Bishop  of  Durham,  1671,  the  York  herald  bore  his 
crosier.  The  last  instance  mentioned  in  the  Hicrurgia  Aiiglicami  is  that 
of  Bishop  Mews,  1706. 

The  Erastian  period  of  the  Church  intervenes;  after  the  lapse  of  one 
hundred  and  fift\'  }'ears,  the  crosier  was  borne  at  the  funeral  of  Bishop 
Doane,  and  since  then,  there  have  been  several  other  instances,  both  in 
the  Anglican  and  in  the  American  branches  of  the  Church. 

As  in  other  ecclesiastical  work,  so  in  the  lesser  paraphernalia  of  the 
Church,  tile  skill  of  Ireland  during  the  MidiUe  Ages  deser\-es  special 
Irish  Pastoral  niciition.  Mitrcs,  bells,  vestments  of  glorious  handiwork 
^'*^'*'  have  l:)L-en   preserved,  enough  to  make  us  mourn  over  the 

treasures  lost.      Crosiers  and  pastoral  sta\-es,  rich  in   workmanship,  and 

^  Ilierurgia  Anglicana,  pp.  81-S9.         '  Ingraliam,  Memorials  of  Oxford,  Ilierurgia,  p.  S3. 


The  Crosier  and  Pastoral  Staff  247 

hallowctl  witli  pious  lcij;etKls,  the  delight  i)f  an  arcliieologist,  still  exist  in 
private  collections  and  in  that  of  the  Irish  Academy.  For  example,  the 
pastoral  staves  of  S.  Fincluie  in  Brit^oLin,  and  of  S.  Muran  in  Fahan. 
These  are  prized,  not  so  much  for  their  jewels  and  artistic  value,  as  for 
their  miraculous  \irtues,  affordiiitj  an  oath  to  the  common  peo])le,  which, 
as  recorded  by  Cjiraklus  Cambreiisis  in  I  1 85,  was  esteemed  much  more 
bintling  than  one  upon  the  holy  Gospels.' 

Pre-eminent  among  staves  is  the  crosier  of  S.  Patrick,  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  the  "  Staff  of  Jcslis  "  ;  it  was  held  in  the  greatest 
reverence,  not  only  on  account  of  the  belief  tliat  it  had  once         =  d  ,     ,,. 

'  -  S.  Patrick  s 

belonged  to  the  Apostle  of   Ireland,  but   from   the  legend  Crosier, 

which  connects  it  with  our  Saviour  himself.  No  mention  is  made  of  this 
by  the  Saint's  most  ancient  biographers,  but  such  a  trifle  must  not  inter- 
fere with  the  antiquarian's  enjoyment  of  the  history  as  delivered  by 
Joceline  in  1 185. 

"  S.  Patrick,  moved  by  di\ine  instinct  or  anjelick  revelation,  visited 
one  Justus,  an  ascetick,  who  inhabited  an  Island  in  the  Tyrrhene  Sea,  a 
man  of  exemplary  virtue  and  most  holy  life.  After  mutual  salutations 
and  discourse,  he  presented  the  Irish  apostle  with  a  staff  which  he 
averred  he  received  from  the  hands  of  Jesus  Christ  himself.  In  this 
island  were  some  men  in  the  bloom  of  youth,  and  others  who  appeared 
aged  and  decrepit;  S.  Patrick  conversing  ^vith  them,  found  that  these 
aged  persons  were  the  sons  of  the  seemingly  young.  Astonished  at  this 
miraculous  appearance,  he  was  told  that  from  their  infancy  they  had 
served  God,  that  they  were  constanth-  employed  in  works  of  charity,  and 
their  doors  were  open  to  the  traveller  and  distressed;  that  one  night  a 
stranger  came  to  them  with  a  staff  in  his  hand,  and  they  accommodated 
him  to  the  best  of  their  power;  that  in  the  morning  he  blessed  them  and 
said — '  I  am  Jesus  Christ,  whom  you  ha\'e  always  faithfully  served,  but 
last  night  you  received  me  in  my  proper  person.'  He  then  gave  his  staff 
to  their  spiritual  father  with  directions  to  deliver  it  to  a  stranger  named 
Patrick,  who  would  shortly  visit  them ;  in  saying  this  He  ascended  into 
heaven,  aiid  left  us  in  that  state  of  juvenility  in  which  you  behold  us; 
and  our  sons,  then  }-oung,  are  the  old  decrepit  persons  you  now  see." 
Joceline  goes  on  to  relate  that  with  this  staff  our  apostle  gathered  every 
venomous  creature  in  the  island  on  the  top  of  the  mountain  of  Cruagh 

'  Mant.  Hist,  of  the  C/i.  in  Ir.him/,  vol.  i.,  p.  6S. 


hS  History  of  the  Cross 


Phadraug  in  the  County  of  Mayo,  and  then  precipitated  them  into  tlie 
ocean. 

"  When  S.  MaLach\-  became  primate,"  as  related  by  an  author  lately 
cited,  "  Nigellus,  who  had  usurj^cd  the  primatial  See  carried  the  staff 
away  from  Armagh;  and  such  was  the  importance  attached  to  the  pos- 
session of  it  that  many  persons  in  consequence  adhered  to  the  usurper. 
But  Nigellus  did  not  retain  it  long;  it  was  again  restored  to  Armagh," 
where  it  was  made  an  object  of  superstitious  veneration.  In  the  time 
of  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  in  1177,  during  a  pillage  of  the  city  and  abbey, 
it  was  stolen  and  carried  to  Dublin.  This  theft  was  of  such  great  im- 
portance in  the  estimation  of  that  superstitious  age,  as  to  merit  a  record 
in  the  annals  of  the  country,  as  the  breaking  of  it  had  been  recorded  on 
a  former  occasion  in  1027.  Being  then  presented  to  the  Cathedral  of  the 
Blessed  Trinit}*,  it  was  there  preser\-ed  with  reverential  care,  and  became 
the  subject  of  a  miracle  in  145 1.  During  a  great  tempest,  the  chest,  con- 
taining the  Staff  of  Jesus  and  other  relics,  was  broken  to  pieces  by  the 
falling  in  of  the  east  window,  but  the  staff,  entirely  undamaged,  was 
found  h'ing  on  the  top  of  the  rubbish,  although  the  other  relics  were 
entirely  buried  under  it.' 

An  interesting  historical  relic  has  been  preserved  in  Canada.  At  the 
consecration  of  the  Roman  Bishop  of  Toronto,  in  1859,  the  crook  of  the 
crosier  used  by  Bishop  De  Carbonel  was  one  which  formerly  belonged  to 
S.  Filliam,  and  was  borne  by  him  at  the  blessing  of  the  Scottish  army  at 
Bannockbarn.  It  was  the  gift  of  James  III.,  in  1487.  to  John  Dairc  or 
Dewar.      It  is  of  solid  silver  and  contains  a  relic  covered  with  white  stone." 

Bishop  Doane's  staff  was  a  gift  from  Mr.  Beresford  Hope  of  England. 
It  was  a  simple  pastoral  staff  carved  of  the  ancient  oak  which  had  been 
„.  ^     ,^       .      removed  in   the  restoration  of  S.  Auirustine's,  Canterburv. 

Bishop  Doane  s  ^  '  - 

^^^^-  It  is  now  in  the  possession  of  his  son,  tlie  Bishop  of  Albany. 

The  first  pastoral  staff  ever  made  in  this  country,  was  that  given  to 
Bisliop  Hopkins  in  1866.  It  is  of  oak,  "  adorned  with  color,  silver,  gilt, 
Bishop  Hopkins's  ^'"'^'  enamel.  In  the  crook  is  the  figure  of  the  Good  Shep- 
^'^''-  herd  standing  with  ;i  lamb  in  his  arms  and  a  she-ep  on  either 

side,  all  of  silver.  Eight  enaniellcil  medallinns  on  the  ]<n<il)  gi\-e  the 
condensed  a])ostolic  succession   from   S.   I'.iul    through   .S.    Augustine  of 

'  W.arburton,  History  of  Dublin,  vol.  i.,  p.  iSi,  qiioteil  in  Maiit's  History  0/  the  C/iuich  in 
Ireland,  vol.  i.,  p.  68.  '  Gentleman's  Mag.,  1853,  p.  420;  Neiv  York  Times,  IJec.  7,  iSjy. 


The  Crosier  and  Pastoral  Staff  249 

Canterbury,  Mattlicw  I'arkcr,  and  Bishop  Wliitc. The  cross  is  of  the 

Celtic  pattern,  richly  carved  on  its  four  faces.  The  upper  piece  is  five 
feet  high  and  four  feet  across  the  amis;  the  shaft  being  seven  feet;  and 
the  steps  (three  in  number)  are  each  one  foot  in  height,  making  the  entire 
height  fifteen  feet.  The  western  face  has  the  descending  Dove  on  the 
heart  of  the  Cross,  with  the  monograms  of  the  sacred  names;  and  full- 
length  figures  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  three  in  each  arm  of  the  Cross. 
The  seven-fold  rays  of  the  Dove  pass  behind  the  lower  three  down  the 
whole  of  the  shaft,  on  which  appears  the  Bishop's  pastoral  staff  grasped 
by  his  left  hand,  and  with  its  crook  turned  outward.  All  around  are 
stars  which  signify  '  those  who  turn  many  to  righteousness.'  On  the 
eastern  face  are  the  more  personal  mementos.  The  other  two  sides 
bear  the  vine,  with  leaves,  tendrils,  and  bunches  of  ripe  grapes,  running 
up  over  the  ends  of  the  arms  and  to  the  gabled  top.  A  circular  crown 
supports  the  arms  relieved  by  four  pierced  openings,  and  marked  in  each 
division  by  seven  small  knobs  showing  that  the  crown  is  a  spiritual 
crown."     Cost  about  one  thousand  dollars.' 

'  Life  of  Bishop  Hopkins,  p.  358. 
'  Ibid,,  p.  4.V2,  note. 


CHAPTER   IX 

PECTORAL   CROSSES 

LONG  before  the  Christian  era,  Oriental  nations  made  use  of  pec- 
toral ornaments  which  would  seem  to  have  served  some  represent- 
A  .    ^u  ■  •■         ative   purpose,    from   the   fact    that    even   after   death   they 

Ante-Chnstian  r        I  '  J 

Pectoral  Cross,     accompauicd  the  wcarcr,  and  are  found  in  the  sepulchres 

of  various   ancient  peoples.     As  a  symbol  of  the  deity,  of  sanctity,  of 

eternal  life,  or  of  blessing,  they  were  also  depicted  on  the  breast  of  male 

figures  in  the  mural  decoration  of  Egyptian  and  Etruscan  tombs. 

A  picture  found  in  Thebes,  with  the  date  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty, 

about  iioo  B.C.,  represents  Asiatics  bearing  tribute,  having  around  their 

necks  crosses  of  equal  limb.     Wilkinson,  in  his  Ancient 

Egypt,  gives  the  same  form  on  the  breast  of  two  warriors, 

and  Rossilini  also  on  the  neck  of  an  Asiatic'     Another 

form  is  portrayed  on  a  warrior,  one  of  the  "  Seven  Chiefs 

against  Thebes,"  about   1200  B.C.,  painted  on  an   Etrus- 

Cross  Worn  by  one    can  alabaster  vase  at  Volterra,  Italy." 

of   the    "Seven  titi--ti\t  1  i.-  r 

Chiefs     against  ^'''  ^'^'-'  -I'l'itish   Museum,  -we  ha\e  a  representation  ot 

Thebes,"    circa    Samsi-Vul  IV.,  King  of  Assyria,  B.C.  835,  wearing  a  pec- 
T^    '  't."  ,'.   -,.,      toral  cross  quite  similar  to  the  Maltese  of  modern  date. 

From  Brock  s  The  '- 

Cross:  Heatlun  and  about  three  times  the  size  of  the  cut.  This  is  be- 
andChrisha,,.  ijg^,gj  (-„  indicate  that  the  wearer  was  not  only  a  king,  but 
a  priest.  1  le  fl(.)urished  before  the  era  of  Isaiah,  and  was  a  contemporary 
of  Elisha.  Another  Assyrian  monarch,  Assur-Nazir-l^il,  whose  imposing 
effigy  in  stone  may  be  seen  in  the  same  museum,  is  also  decorated  with 
a  similar  cross.  Dr.  Schliemann  discovered  at  Mycense  and  Hissarlik, 
the  supposed  site  of  ancient  Troy,  necklaces  and  pendants,  in  the  shape 
of  crosses  and  stars  fniined  of  combiiietl  crosses,  and  cithers  in  the  form 

'  MonwHciili  A/.  A'.  .1/.,  Ixx.  '  Griti/,ma>i's  .l/ai,'.,  1863,  p.  80. 

250 


Pectoral  Crosses 


^51 


of  foLii-  leaves,  wrought   in   thin  gold  work  with  claboral^-ly  (jrnaincntal 
detail. 

The  cross  as  a  sign  of  Cliristianity  ditl  not  at  first  come  into  i)ublic 
use  in  the  Church,  probably  not  until  the  time  of  Constantinc,  after 
persecution  had  ceased,  anil  when  the  sacred  badge  might 

^  &  »         Antiquity  of  Pec- 

be   regarded   with    proper   respect.       Inasmuch   as   amulets     torai  christian 

Crosses. 

appear  to  have  been  worn   in  the  most  ancient  times,  the 

adoption  of  the  Christian  symbol  for  this  purpose  became  a  matter  of 

course.' 

The  earliest  mention  that  we  find  of  the  Christian  use  of  a  cross  sus- 
pended from  the  neck,  is  that  of  Pope  Hilarius,  A.D.  461.  Gregory  the 
Great  wore  a  cross,  but  its  precise  form  is  not  mentioned.  The  Emperor 
Justin,  A.D.  519,  presented  to  the  Pope  a  pectoral  cross.  The  Agnus  Dei 
stands  in  the  centre,  the  bust-length  figure  of  our  Lord  in  the  act  of 
benediction  is  placed  at  the  upper  end  ;  that  of 
S.  John  below.  The  Emperor  and  his  wife 
Flavia  Euphemia  are  at  the  transverse  ends. 
In  the  mosaics  which  adorn  the  Oratory  of  S. 
Venantius  at  Rome,  completed  in  the  seventh 
century,  the  blessed  Virgin  is  rc[)resented  with 
a  Greek  pectoral  cross  on  her  bosom." 

Nicephorus,  A.D.  811,  sent  to  Leo  III.  a 
golden  pectoral  cross  enclosing  some  portions 
of  the  true  Cross.      But  it  was  not 

,      ,         ^  ,  ,         Pectoral  Cross  as  Q^^^^  ^Vom   by    Samsi-Vul   IV., 

until  the  fourteenth  century  that        an  Episcopal  ^^ 

Ornament.  ^  -'       '  -'-' 

it  was  reckoned  among  the  Epis-  British  Museum. 

,  ...  From  Brock's   The  Cross :   Hea- 

copal    ornaments,    when    special   prayers  were      ^,  ,  „,   .   . 

'  II,'  //;j,„  „„,,'  Christian. 

used  at  the  time  of  its  bestowal. 

When  displayed,  it  was  a  symbol  of  jurisdiction,  and 
therefore  it  was  concealed  \\hen  a  bishop  entered  the  dio- 
cese of  another. 

The  custom  of  wearing  pectoral  crosses,  or  cnkolpia  as  the  Greeks 
call  them,  appears  to  have  been  more  common,  among  the  laics  as  well 
as  clergy,  in  the  Eastern  than  in  the  Western  Church,  and  a  relic  of  no 

'  Ciampini,   Vetera  Mommenta,  torn,  ii.,  p.  108,  tab.  xxxi. 

'  This  seems  a  more  reasonable  origin  than  that  assigned  by  Innocent  III.,  who  says  that 
the  Bishop  wears  a  pectoral  cross  in  imitation  of  the  Jewish  High  Priest's  breast-plate  or  the  gold 
plate  on  his  brow. — Walcott,  Sacred ArcJuToIogy,  art.  "Cross,  Pectoral." 


Symbol  of 
Jurisdiction. 


Pectoral  Crosses 


253 


slight  value  from  an  historical  point  of  view  is  preserved  in  the  library  of 
Durham  Cathedral,  England.  It  is  the  Cross  of  Greek  form  taken  from 
the  breast  of  S.  Cuthbert  (seventh  century)  when  his  tomb  was  opened 
in  1827. 

Enkolpia  were  not  always  cruci- 
form. Tlic  name  properly  belongs  to 
reliquaries  of  any  shape  worn  suspend- 
ed on  the  breast.  Sometimes  they 
were  square  bearing  the  monogram  X/' 
or  .-10,,  at  other  times  they  were  in  the 
form  of  small  bottles  of  gold.  Greg- 
ory the  Great,  it  is  said,  first  made 
them  cruciform.  Walcott  mentions 
an  ancient  pectoral  cross,  worn  by  a 
bishop,  bearing  the  appropriate  motto, 
"  Emmanuel,  God  with  us,  the  Cross 
is  Eife  to  me,  to  thee  Death,  an  en- 
emy. ' '  ' 

In  Eabarte's  Handbook  of  Arts  of 
the  Middle  Ages  and  Renaissanec  is 
given  a  curious  Byzantine  pectoral 
cross  now  in  the  possession  of  A.  B. 
Hope,  Esq.  It  is  formed  of  two  en- 
amelled gold  plates,  making  a  reli- 
quary. On  the  one  side  is  Christ 
crowned  with  a  cruciform  nimbus,  his 
feet  on  a  suppedaneuiii  and  separated ; 
over  his  head  is  the  monogram.  The 
presence  of  the  Father  is  indicated  by 
an  initial  n^nTijp),  at  the  foot  of  the 
Cross  is  the  skull  of  Adam  :  the  blessed 
Virgin  and  S.  John  occupy  their  re- 
spective places,  and  the  words,  "  Be- 
hold thy  Son  "  are  inscribed.  S.  John  Baptist,  S.  Paul,  S.  Peter,  and  S 
Andrew  appear.  M.  Eabarte  thinks  it  is  of  the  tenth  century,  and  AI 
Laborde,  of  the  twelfth  century." 

'  Walcott,  Sacred  Arc /uTology,  p.  260.  '  Labarte,  Handbook,  pp.  xxiii.,  no. 


Byzantine  Pectoral  Cross.     From  Labarte's 
Handbook  of  the  Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages. 


2  54  History  of  the  Cross 

In  the  Danish   ^Museum  of  Northern  Antiquities  is  preser\-cd  a  most 

exquisite  rcHquary  pectoral  cross  which  once  belonged  to  the  celebrated 

^         .    Oueen  Dauinar.      When  her  tomb  was  opened  about  1600, 

Queen  Dagmars     -;^  »  i  ^ 

Ci'oss.  Jt  was  found  h'ing  on  her  breast.      She  was  the  daughter  of 

the  King  of  Bohemia  and  was  wedded,  in  1205,  to  Waldemar  II.  of 
Denmark.  An  old  ballad  tells  us  that  on  the  morning  after  her  marriage 
when  according  to  the  custom  she  was  entitled  to  her  morning  gift, — 

Early  on  tlie  morrow, 
Long  ere  it  was  day, 
It  was  the  Lady  Dagniar, 

For  her  morning-gifts  she  '11  pray. 
They  sail' d from  the  athelest '  Beyrland? 

"  My  first  bede  now  I  bid,  dear, 

To  my  lowly  prayer  inclined, 
Let  go  jioor  Bishop  Waldemar, 

That  long-loved  uncle  mine  !  " 
They  saiVJ from  the  athelest  Beyrlami. 

"  My  second  bede  eke  I  bid  now, 

So  fain  I  ask  thee  it. 
Give  u]),  lief  lord,  all  Plough-pennies 

And  all  in  iron  that  sit  !  " 
Thcv  sail' d  from  the  athelest  Bexrland. 

Of  course  she  became  the  idol  of  Denmark.  Her  name  was  changed  for 
one  of  more  symbolic  meaning.  It  was  originally  Dragomir,  /.  c,  the 
dear  peace-maker.  This  meant  nothing  in  her  new  country.  It  was 
altered  into  Dagmar,  /.  ,-. ,  the  Day-may,  the  Maiden  of  the  Dawn.  But 
soon,  in  121  J,  of  the  beloved  wife  and  queen  we  read,  her  husband  was 
summoned  to  find  the  mother  a  corpse,  her  child  saved  by  the  severe 
Czesarean  operation.  "  But  at  his  approach  her  strong  love  calls  back 
her  soul,  and  she  takes  leave  of  her  lord,  in  that  short  space  having  gone 
through  the  pains  of  Purgator\\  so  venial  had  been  her  sins."  She  again 
prays  for  unhappy  outlaws,  and  fettered  prisoners,  and  expires  once  more 
with  the  words, 

"  Night  nor  day  pain  none  had  I  suffer'd. 
No  fire  had  come  me  nigh, 
Had  1  not  lared  my  sleeves  one  Sunday, 
Antl  my  gold-cajj  sticht  up  high." 
Queen  Dagmar  she  resteth  there  in  Kingstcd. 
'  Noblest.  »  Bohemia. 


Pectoral  Crosses 


255 


Her  eyne  she  stroketh  now  once  more, 

Her  cheeks  they  were  so  white  ; 
"  Heaven's  Cliinies,  they  are  ringing  for  me, 

No  longer  can  I  Ijide  !  " 
Queen  Dagmar  she  restcl/i  tlicrr  in  Riiigskd. 

May  24,  12 1 2,  her  soul  departed  to  its  home. 

Frederick  VII.  wish! ni;  to  give  a  memento  to  the  Princess  Alexandra, 
the  future  Queen  of  England,  caused  a  fac-simile  of  Queen  Dagniar's 
cross  to  be  made,  enclosing  a  bit   of  silk,  a  slip  of  vellum, 

Fac-simileof 

and  a  splinter  of  wood.     "  The  silken  stuff  was  cut  from  Queen  Dagmar's 

.  Cross. 

the  silken  cushion  on  which  the  head  of  Holy  Cnut,  King 

and  Patron  Saint  of  Denmark,  was  found  resting  when  his  shrine  was 


(      •> 


Queen  Dagmar's  Cross.     From  Stephens's  Queen  Daginar's  Cross. 

opened  in  Odense  in  i<S33.  This  pillow  is  now  preserved  in  the  Old- 
Northern  Museum.  The  splint  was  taken  from  a  reliquary  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  now  in  the  Old-Northern  Museum,  in  wh.ich  it  lay,  accompanied 
by  a  morsel  of  vellum,  announcing  (dc  ligno  dci]  that  it  was  a  bit  of  the 
Cross  of  Christ.  The  slip  of  parchment  bears  the  \vords  Scricuiii  de 
pii/viiurri  Sti  Caiiuti,  Regis  ct  Patrcvii  Daniic,  iiianii  Fridcrici  I'll.  Regis 
Daniir  abscissuiii  "  (silk  from  the  pillow  of  S.  Cnut,  King  and  Patron  of 
Denmark,  cut  off  by  the  hand  of  Frederick  VII.,  King  of  Denmark).' 
Ornamenting  this  fac-simile  cross  are  two  thousand  brilliants  and  rose 

'  Stephens,  Queen  Dagmar's  Cross,  1863. 


2^6 


History  of  the  Cross 


cross. 


ciijhteenth    centurv. 


diamonds  and  one  liundred  and  eighteen  pearls.  The  original,  like  its 
copy,  doubtless  contains  relics,  but  that  cannot  be  ascertained  without 
separating"  it.  Upon  one  side  it  bears  the  figure  of  the  Saviour,  with 
figures  not  unlike  swans;  upon  the  other  arc  five  medallions,  Christ  in 
the  centre,  the  Virgin  at  his  right  and  S.  John  at  his  left;  S.  Basil  above, 
and  S.  Chrysostom  below,  their  names,  being  abbreviated,  are  given  in 
Greek  characters.  Its  workmanship,  and  the  two  latter  saints  indicate 
its  Byzantine  origin. 

"  The  fashion  of  wearing  a  cross  of  gold,  merely  as  an  ornament,  is 
of  late  origin.  It  may  be  traced  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
Cross  Worn,  ccuturv.  A  portrait  of  Anne  of  Cleves  shows  her  adorned 
though  unsuit-     ^^.jj,^  ^[^|.gg  necklaces,  to  one  of  which  is  attached  a  jewelled 

ble,  as  an  Orna- 

The   mode   was   revived    in   the   beginning    of    the 
The   ladies   who   then   went,   even  to  church,    in 
dresses  cut  very  low,  wore,  as  a  throat   or  bosom 
ornament,  small  diamond  Sniiit-Esprits  and  crosses. 
Against    this    profanation    of    symbols,    a    zealous 
preacher  thus  indignantly  exclaimed  from  the  pul- 
pit: '  Alas!  can  the  cross,  which  represents  the  mor- 
tification of  the  flesh,  and  the   Holy  Ghost,  author 
Cross  nf  the  Knights       of  all  good  thoughts,  be  more  unsuitably  placed  !  '  "  ' 
Templars.  Among  pectoral  crosses  should  be  included  the 

so-called  cross  of  absolution.  In  the  Middle  Ages,  our  forefathers  would 
extend  the  virtues  and  power  of  the  Cross,  even  beyond  life, 
hence  we  sometimes  find  in  sepulchres,  a  passport  of  Papal 
absolution  engraved  on  metal  in  the  sacred  form.  In  the  ancient  Church  of 
Butteils,  near  Dieppe,  were  exhumed  several  skeletons  bearing  upon  their 
breasts  rudely  cut  crosses  of  sheet  lead,  on  which  was  a  simple  form  of  ab- 
solution similar  to  that  used  in  the  tenth  century.  They  have  also  been 
found  at  Meau.x,  Mayencc,  P^rigueux,  Bury  .S.  Edmunds,  Chichester,  and 
elsewhere.  One  of  a  bishop,  about  A.D.  loSS.  is  jireserved  at  Chichester. 
Mabillon,  in  liis  annals  of  the  Benedictine  Order,  records  that  when 
Abclard  died,  A.D.  1 142,  Heloise  applied  to  the  Abbot  of  Cluny  for  such  an 
Cross  for  Abeiard  instrument,  ' '  Ut  scpulchro  ejus SHSpciidcr/nr. "     It  was  granted 

Granted  at  Re- 
quest of  Heloise.  ap[)arently  as  a  matter  of  course;  hence  it  may  be  inferred 

that  the  custom  of  using  absolution  crosses  was  not  unusual. 
'  I  )e  ll.irrer,!,  Grms  iiml  yc-iVils,  \i.  297. 


Absolution 
Crosses. 


CHAPTER  X 

CONSICCKATION    CROSSES 

"  T~)V  the  laws  of  Justinian  (cir.  A.D.  528),  no  church  was  to  be  be- 
_U  gi^'"'  before  the  bishop  had  first  made  a  solemn  prayer,  and 
fixed  the  siL;n  o{  the  Cross  in  the  j)lace  where  a  new  church  ^^j  inofconsc- 
was  to  be  erected.  .  .  .  The  same  custom  was  observed  oration  crosses. 
in  purifying  tlie  temples  of  the  heathen  when  they  were  to  be  conse- 
crated into  Christian  churches.  .  .  .  And  whereas  some  monks  and 
other  orders  of  men,'  would  sometimes  presume  to  set  up  the  sign  of  the 
Cross  in  public  buildings,  and  other  places  erected  for  the  divertisement 
of  the  people ;  which  was,  in  effect,  a  pretending  to  make  them  churches 
without  the  bishop's  leave;  therefore  the  Emperor  Leo  made  a  decree, 
that  nothing  of  this  nature  should  be  done  by  usurpation  for  the  future,  but 
whether  it  was  to  erect  a  cross,  or  bring  the  relics  of  a  martyr  into  any  place, 
both  of  these  should  be  done  by  the  direction  of  the  bishops,  and  not  other- 
wise. And  hence  it  is  probably  conjectured  both  by  Suicerus  and  Meur- 
sius,  that  a  bishop's  diocese  is  sometimes  called  savpmrrj^iov,  that  is,  the 
district  wherein  he  had  power  to  fix  the  Cross  within  his  own  bounds  for 
the  buikling  of  churches.  So  the  word  will  signif)-  both  the  act  of  mak- 
ing a  cross,  and  the  limits  wherein  he  had  power  to  make  it."  '' 

Before  the  time  of  Justinian,  Theodosius  (A.D.  395-408)  commanded 
that  the  Cross  should  be  placed  within  and  upon  such  temples  as  had 
been    used   for  pagan   worship,    to   purify    them."      Hence,        consecration 

bi   1  .1  r  .  •  j_  1  1 1  Crosses  Cocri- 

abl\%  <rrew  the  use  of  consecration  crosses  on  the  walls,         j  ^  u    xi, 
1  .    '    t>  manaeu  by  Ineo- 

although  the  date  of  their  origin  is  lost  in  antiquity.'  dosms. 

'  As  the  Templars  and  other  ecclesiastical  orders  did  in  later  times. 

'  Hinghaiii,  Christian  Anliipiitics,  b.  viii.,  chap,  ix.,  sec.  v. 

^  Cod.  Thcod.,  lib.  i.  ;    Tit  de  Paganis.  leg.  25. — liinyham. 

''  Consecration  crosses,  with  ritual,  Walcott  thinks  may  be  traced  to  the  fourth  century  ;  a 
form  of  prayer  to  the  ninth,  yet,  by  a  slip  of  his  pen  he  would  unconsciously  date  them  in  the 
eleventh  century.     See  Consecration  and  Cross  of  Consecration. 
■7 


!S8 


History  of  the  Cross 


Exterior  Cross. 

From  Neale's  History  of  the 

Holy  Eastern  Church. 


Number  of 
Crosses. 


In  the  Eastern  Cluii-ch  at  the  present  time,   "  although   dedication 

crosses  in  the  Latin  use  of  the  term  are  unknown,  exterior  crosses  in  the 

.     ^    ^    ,    fabric  of  the  church  are  more  common  than  in  the  Western 

Use  in  the  East- 
ern Church.         ^^j-,j  would  appear  to  have  been  so  from  very  early  times. 

Throughout  the  ruined  churches  of  Syria,  there  is  one  invariable  form 
of  this  cross."  The  Greek,  slightly /r^Z/tv,  A\itli 
the  lower  limb  elongated  about  one  fourth.  "  In 
like  manner,  the  exterior  of  Armenian  churches 
are  covered  witli  them,  and  the  same  thing  holds 
true  of  Georgia,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  of 
Greece."  " 

In  ancient  times,  according  to  Durandus,  the 
bishop  carved  upon  the  corner  stone,  with  his 
own  hands,  a  cross,  which  might  be 
considered  one  of  consecration,  al- 
though it  is  not  distinctly  so  stated.  Durandus 
directs  that  they  should  be  twelve  in  number, 
and  explains  the  reason  for  their  use.  "  First,  as  a  terror  to  evil  spirits; 
secondly,  as  a  mark  of  triumph.  For  crosses  be  the  banners  of  Christ. 
For  even  in  the  pomp  of  an  earthly  sovereign  it  is  customary 
when  any  city  hath  been  yielded,  for  the  imperial  standard  to  be  set  up 
within  it.  .  .  .  Thirdly,  that  such  as  look  on  them  may  call  to  mind 
the  Passion  of  Christ  by  which  He  hath  consecrated  His  Church,  and 
their  belief  in  His  Passion.  Whence  it  is  said  in  the  Canticles,  '  Place 
me  as  a  signet  upon  thy  arm.'  (Cant.  \iii.  6. )  The  twelve  lights  placed 
Lights  before  the  before  thcsc  crosscs  signify  the  twelve  apostles  who  have 
illumined  the  whole  world  by  the  I'aith  of  the  Crucified." 

Anointed  with 

Chrism.  They  are  anointed  with  chrism,  because  not  only  the  foin- 

quarters  of  the  world  (signified  b\'  the  four  walls)  have  been  lighted  up 
"  into  love,"  "  but  have  been  anointed  into  puiit}-  of  conscience,  which 
is  signified  by  the  oil,  and  into  the  savour  of  a  good  reputation  which  is 
signified  by  the  balsam."  '" 

Consecration  crosses  were  either  painted  in  color,  as  for  example,  in 
How  Formed.  S.  I.aureuce's  Church,  Nuremberg,  where  the_\-  are  red;  on 
the  Cathedral  of  Rabston,  where  they  are  depicted  crosses  Jlcury,  gold. 


'  Neale,  Hist,  Eastern  Churchy  Introduction,  p.  222. 
'  Durandus,  Neale's,  and  Webb's  Trans.,  p.  126. 


Consecration  Crosses 


259 


on  a  blue  i^round  within  a  ciiclc  of  red;  or  else  carved  in  the  stone,  and 
sometimes  inlaid  with  brass.  In  l.iebfrauenkirchc  in  Treves  within  cir- 
cular panels,  angels  are  represented  bearing  the  crosses. 

In  the  south  of  France  there  are  many  instances  of  the  consecration 
crosses  being  in  the  form  of  the  Labaruin,  i.  e.,  >^.'  In  the  formation, 
the  perpendicular  stem   is  i)laced  over  the  horizontal  one,  _ 

i        ^  ^  '  Crosses  in 

and   the   latter  is  sometimes  repeateil   thus,    :|=,  as  on   one  France. 

jamb  at  the  entrance  of  Preston  Church,  Sussex,  England."  Another 
variation  is  seen  in  Bar  Preston  Church,  Kent,  where  the  horizontal  arm 
is  a  double  cross  crosslet. 


Consecration  Cross. 
From  Lee's  Glossary. 


Consecration  Cross. 
From  Lee's  Glossary. 


There  is  also  another  form  of  consecration  cross.     According  to  the 
Roman    Pontificate,    after    the    Litany,    a   cross   of   sand    and    ashes    is 
sprinkled  upon  the  floor  upon  which  the  bishop  traces  with 
his  pastoral  staff  the  Greek   and    Latin   Alphabets.       "  A      cross fn^sl^d 
thing,"    Martene   observes,   "which   might   appear  puerile  and  Ashes. 

unless  it  had  been  instituted  by  men,  great  in  dignity,  spiritual  in  life, 
apostolical  in  discipline."     Durandus  and  Martene  thus  explain  it. 

'  Gentleman's  Mag.,  1854,  p.  56. 

''  Eng.  Ecclesiologist.  vol.  ii.,  pp.  47,  80,  171.  The  sign  and  signet  of  our  Lord  was  the 
same  before  and  after  His  coming.  See,  among  other  examples,  the  crosses  (consecration  ?)  in 
Redcliffe  Church,  Bristol,  and  on  other  Anglo-Norman  structures  similar  to  those  found  in  the 
ruins  of  Yucat.an.  The  builder's  marks  on  Gloucester  Cathedral  are  identical  with  those  found 
in  Carthage  and  Mexico. — Notes  and  Queries,  2d  ser.,  xii.,  p.  425. 


26o  History  of  the  Cross 

By  the  alphabet  is  understood  the  rudiments  of  sacred  doctrine,  as  S. 
Paul  said,  "  Ye  have  need  that  one  teach  you  again  which  be  tlie  first 
principles  of  the  oracles  of  God."  (Heb.  v.  12.)  The  Greek  and  the 
Latin  are  used  to  represent  the  (sometime)  union  in  faith  of  both  nations. 
The  Hebrew  is  omitted  because  the  Jews  have  rejected  the  truth.  .And 
yet  the  Cross  is  to  be  described  athwart  the  church  (/.  t'.,  Saltirewise)  begin- 
ning at  the  left  corner  of  the  east,  for  knowledge  came  from  the  Jews,  to 
the  right  corner  of  the  west,  and  then  from  the  right  of  the  east  to  the 
left  of  the  west,  for  Christ  passing  from  the  east,  left  the  Jews  on  his  left 
hand  because  of  their  unbelief,  and  came  to  the  Gentiles  on  the.  west. 
It  is  written  upon  the  pavement  to  remind  us  of  the  foundation  of  our 
faith,  and  of  mean  materials,  that  we  may  recall  that  even  Abraham 
acknowledged  "  Behold  now'  I  have  taken  upon  me  to  speak  unto  the 
Lord,  w'hich  am  but  dust  and  ashes  "  (Gen.  .xviii.  27).' 

There  is  also  probably  some  reference  to  the  Saviour's  stooping  down 

and  writing  in  the  dust. 

'  Durandus,  Neale,  and  Webb's  Trans.,  pp.  122,  239.  The  alphabet  was  sometimes  written 
north  and  south,  l>ut,  probaljly,  more  often  as  Durandus  directs.  It  is  so  in  tlie  .Anglo-Saxon 
Ceremonial  now  in  the  library  at  Rouen,  which  Montfaucon  ascribes  to  the  seventh  or  eighth 
century. — Arehieologia^  vol.  xxv. ,  p.  235. 


CHAPTER  XI 


SriRE   AND   GABLE   CROSSES 


6    ■*'^  , 


VV~© 


THE  earliest  cross  placed  upon  the  summit  of  a  spire  was  probably 
about  A.D.  568.'     The  positions  which  are  authorized  as  proper 
for  a  spire,  or  pinnacle  cross,   accordiiitj  to  the  Handbook 

\.  ^  ^  ^  Date  of  first  Use. 

of  English  Ecclcsiology,  are  the  east  end  of  the  chancel,  east 

end  of  the   nave,  porch,  west   end   where  there  is  no  west  tower,    bell 

gables,   and  transepts.      There    are    examples   of 

other  positions,  ex g}-.,  the  west  end  of  the  south 

aisle;  east  and  west  ends  of  the  chantry;  north 

aisle,  east  or  west  end  or  both  ;  the  tower  when 

the  roof  is  gabled;  on  the  central  battlement  and 

on  the  top  of  a  spire  or  turret. 

The  varieties  of  spire  crosses  are  innumerable,    c^-^ 
from  the  simple  Latin  cross,  obviously  inappropri- 
ate, to  the  most  floriated.      Some  of 

Varieties. 

the  most  beautiful  are  found  in  Spain. 

Spire  crosses  were  made  of  metal  bars,  wrought 
in  open  work  to  offer  the  least  obstruction  to  the 
wind,  and  yet  to  produce  a  rich  effect. 
The  cross  was  placed  upon  a  globe, 
for  its  symbolic  reason,  and  surmounted  by  the 
ever  turning  weathercock,  to  remind  Christians 
of  the  fall  of  S.  Peter,  and  of  the  watchfulness 
with  \\-hich  they  should  ever  face  the  Prince  of  the 
Powers  of  the  Air. 

The  cock  should  be  made  of   copper  with  a 
hollow  body,  and  with  a  tail  projecting  sufficiently  to  catch  the  slightest 

'  Haydn's  Dictionary  0/ Dates. 
2(JI 


Spire  Crosses. 


Spire  Cross. 
From  Lee's  Glossary. 


1 


?ii« 


Crosses  on  (Sabk's. 
P'rom  Parker's  G»ii/>anion  to  Glossa)-y  of  Terms  Use  J  in  Gotliic  Aichitecture. 


1()1 


Spire  and  Gable  Crosses  263 

variation  of  the  wind.  Good  examples  are  found  in  the  cock  on  tlie 
spire  of  Rouen  Cathedral,  and  that  of  Amiens,  about  the  date  of  1526. 

Except  the  cross  erected  by  Colonel  Fremont  on  one  of  tlie  highest 
peaks  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  probably  the  most  elevated  position  to 
which  this  sacred  symbol  has  been  raised  is  upon  the  tops  Altitude  of 

of  some  of  the  mountains  of  the  Levant,  which  are  crowned  some  crosses, 
by  convents.  On  level  ground  may  be  mentioned  the  cross  on  the  dome 
of  S.  Peter's,  Rome,  or  on  the  spires  of  Strasburg  and  Cologne,  which 
are  five  hundred  feet  in  height. 

In  the  Eastern  Church,  gable  crosses  are  usually  of  metal,  and  differ 
very  materially  from  those  of  the  Latin  Church.  In  Russia  the  arms  are 
duplicated,  like  the  pointers  under  the  weather  vanes  in  this 

...  ,         ,  T        ,  ■  r      1  Eastern  Crosses. 

country,  mdicatmg  the  four  cardmal  points  of  the  compass, 

and  attached  to  the  main  rod  by  gilt  chains.     Often  the  Saltire,  or  S. 

Andrew's  cross  is  used.     A  triple  cross  is  not  uncommon,      o     •     r-  ti 

i^  '         Russian  Gable 

especially  in  Moscow,  in  reference  to  the  patriarchal  dignity  crosses, 

in  that  city,  also  in  the  north  of  Russia  and  even  in  Finland.  In  the 
triple  cross  the  lower  bar  usually  faces  a  different  point  of  the  compass 
from  that  to  which  the  two  upper  points  are  directed.'  To  the  peculiar 
significance  of  the  spire  cross  with  the  crescent,  which  occurs  in  this 
country  allusion  has  elsewhere  been  made. 

The  cross  which  crowns  the  spire  at  the  intersection  of  Rood-Spire 

the  transepts  and  nave,  is  called  the  rood-spire  cross.  Cross. 

'  Neale,  Hist.  Eastern  Churchy  Introduction,  p.  221, 


CHAPTER  XII 

STANDARD   CROSSES 

CHRISTIANITY  may  be  said  to  luive  been  publicly  acknowledged 
by  the  State  when  the  Emperor  Constantine  set  up  crosses  in  the 
Official  streets  of  Rome  and  Constantinople.      But  before  his  time 

men"  o7  ^  ^'  stoncs  had  been  set  up  as  witnesses,  like  those  by  the  Israel- 
christianity.        jj-gg  ^f  qJj^  jj^  j-j^g  Outermost  bounds  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

Among  these  we  find  a  rude  stone  pillar  in  Towyn,  Merionethshire, 
Great  Britain,  which  bears  the  name  of  S.  Cadvan,  who  lived  in  the 
third  century;  and  a  cross  is  carved  on  each  of  its  sides  with  an  inscrip- 
tion in  Latin,  in  which  occur  some  British  characters  that  determine  its 
date. 

The  pillar  was  the  germ  of  the  standard  cross:  at  first  it  was  a  rough 
monolith  bearing  a  small  incised  cross  with  an  inscription  commemorative 
of  the  person  or  event.  But,  as  earh?  as  the  fifth  century,  the  pillar  was 
developed  into  a  cross  proper.  After  the  Norman  conquest  it  has  been 
supposed  that  they  fell  into  disuse. 

Standard  crosses  were  erected  for  various  purposes.  Generally  the 
larger  are  classified  as  Churchyard,  Oratory,  Sanctuary,  and  Memorial 
crosses,  but  frequently  one  structure  served  all  these  purposes.  The 
mortuary,  or  headstone,  crosses  will  be  treated  of  separately,  and  only  a 
general  description  will  be  given  of  the  form  antl  ornamentation  of  the 
other  crosses  and  a  few  of  the  mure  notable  ones  described. 

.Some  features  are  common  to  all,  not  only  in  Great  Britain,  but 
thiDughout  the  Continent  of  Europe.  The  crosses  face  east  anti  west. 
- „r->,,„.    When   the   image   of   our  blessed    Lord    is    sculptureil,    in- 

Common  Cnarac-  J^  i 

tcristics.  variabh-   it   is  on   the  western   face,  so  that   the  worshipper 

may  turn  to  the  East  in  his  dex-otions.      If  a  cross  is  turned  in  any  other 

264 


Standard  Crosses  265 

direction  it  has  been  moved  since  its  erection.  Often  the  crosses  are 
elevated  upon  a  calvary  of  three  steps,  symbolical  of  the  holy  Trinity  or 
the  Christian  graces.  Frequently  they  are  equi-brachial,  or  of  the  Greek 
shape,  although  at  times  being  set  upon  a  shaft  the  lower  limb  is 
elongated,  and  hence  the  appearance  of  a  Latin  cross  is  given.  This 
fact  should  be  noted  in  regard  to  others  which  prove  the  early  connec- 
tion of  the  ancient  British  Church  with  the  Eastern  branch  of  the  Catho- 
lic Church. 

The  ancient  English,  Welsh,  and  Cornish  crosses  appear  to  be  of 
three  varieties.  The  earliest,  probably,  of  Roman  work,  are  monoliths 
from  seven  to  ten  feet  high  upon  which  is  cut  a  simple  cross,         c-    ,   u     j 

i=>  f  1  »  English  and 

or  across  with  a  circle,  and  sometimes  the  inscription  as  weish  crosses 
before  mentioned.  In  Cornwall  and  Wales,  the  monogram,  instead  of 
a  cross,  is  sometimes  found.  The  second  class  of  crosses  is  pure  Saxon 
work;  they  are  also  monoliths,  sometimes  fourteen  feet  high,  bearing 
the  cross  in  alto-relief,  or  carved  on  the  head  of  a  simple  shaft.  The 
shaft  is  entirely  plain,  without  figures,  but  divided  into  compartments 
richly  wrought  with  ribbon,  scroll,  and  chequer  work;  the  arms  are  con- 
nected with  the  wheel.  In  the  last  class,  or  Dano-Saxon,  the  scroll  work 
is  richly  elaborated,  and  the  cross  is  no  longer  a  single  stone,  but  com- 
posed of  several.  Upon  the  earlier  crosses,  but  without  the  figure,  the 
wounds  of  our  Lord  are  represented  by  five  bosses. 

Crosses  in  Scotland  are  of  two  kinds.  Pillar  crosses  of  Danish  or 
Norwegian  origin,  and  others  which  resemble  the  Irish  crosses.  The 
first  are  from  eight  to  twent_\--five  feet  in  height,  often  with 

Scotch  Crosses. 

a  Latin  cross  incised  upon  the  whole  western  face,  and  the 
arms  rarely  project  beyond  the  pillar,  while  those  of  Ireland  and  else- 
where are  supported  by  an  open  circle  (usually  called  the  wheel)  or  a 
closed  disk.  The  panels  are  filled  with  ribbon,  chain,  net,  and  diaper 
work.  There  are  few  representations  of  sacred  subjects,  and  no  image 
of  our  blessed  Lord,  but,  instead,  are  carved  battle  scenes,  ships,  animals 
both  in  natural  and  conventional  shapes,  fishes,  etc' 

'  The  interlacing  "basket  work  exists  nowhere  but  in  Ireland  and  Scotland  that  I  am  aware 
of,"  says  Fergusson,  "  except  in  Armenia."  The  "  key  "  ornament  in  the  arm  of  the  Aberlemmo 
cross  "is  found  in  the  Sarnath  Tope  near  Benares  and  elsewhere,  but  is  common  to  both 
countries  ;  as  is  also  the  dragon  ornament  on  the  side  of  the  cross,  though  this  looks  more  like  a 
Scandinavian  ornament  than  anything  that  can  claim  an  origin  further  East." — Fergusson,  Rude 
Stotie  Monuments^  p.  270. 


266 


History  of  the  Cross 


It  IS  almost  impossible  to  decipher  the  curious  sculptures  upon  these 
ancient  stones.  Worn  by  time  and  weather,  they  often  present  different 
appearances  in   the  sunshine  or  when  wet  with   rain.      Frequently   the 

archaioloCTist    has    to    relv 


more  on  the  sense  of  touch, 
tracing  the  emblems  w  ith 
the  finger,  than  that  of 
sight.  For  example,  on 
the  cross  at  Aberlcmmo, 
said  to  ha\-e  been  erected 
to  commemorate  a  victory 
over  the  Danes  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  tenth  centur\-,' 
some  have  discovered,  as 
they  supposed,  remains 
of  Hebrew  letters,  which 
more  fortunate  interpret- 
ers have  decided  are  the 
representation  of  two  an- 
gels." 

A  like  puzzle  is  offered 
up(Tn  one  of  the  crosses  in 
the  churcliyard  of  Neigle. 
Apparently 
the  figure  is 
intended  for  that  of  an 
elephant.  Upon  others  in 
the  same  locality,  appear 
a  centaur  bearing  a  cross 
in  one  paw,  a  bunch  of 
mistletoe  in  the  other,  and 
a  Capricornus,  or  sea  goat. 
Upon  "  a  ci'oss  of  S.  Vig- 


Cross  of  Neigle. 


Jill)    !!■     ljlJ,[ljlM   l.jHff"  HW/^^N 

l''n)nt  of  Stone  .it  Ahvrlcnmio,  with  (loss. 
From  1-ergussoii's  Rude  Stone  Monuments. 

can  l.\.l).  729)  a  grotesque  hybrid,  lialf  bird,  half  fish,  stalks  among  fantas- 
tic animals  and  intertwining  snakes  which  decorate  the  border."  Again 
we  find  writhing  snakes,  crocodiles  with  heads  at  either  end  of  their  bodies, 

'  Fergiissoii,  R«<te  Stone  Monuments,  \i.  270.  ''  Blackwood's  Mag.,  vol.  for  1840. 


Standard  Crosses  267 

fish,  part  quadruped  and  part  serpent,  and  such  like.  Some  have  thought 
that  they  discovered  apes,  and  simihir  unclean  beasts,  perhaps  these  mon- 
sters were  meant  as  representations  of  vices,  or  of  evil  spirits  like  the  gar- 
goyles and  fantastic  figures  in  Gothic  architecture.  Conventional  figures 
of  animals,  such  as  elephants  with  their  feet  turned  up  into  .scrolls,  and 
their  trunks  thrown  in  a  straight  line  over  their  backs,  are  given,  while 
horses,  and  other  animals  with  which  the  artists  were  familiar  are  repre- 
sented correctly,  hence  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  portraiture  proceeds 
from  ignorance  or  from  a  s_\-ndj()lic  reason.' 

Of  crosses  in  honor  of  si)ecial  persons,  we  find  instances  in  the  Isle  of 
Man  which  are  identical  in  character  with  those  of  the  Scotch.  At  Kirk 
Michael  there  is  one  bearing  the  inscription  in  Runic,  "  Mil-  crosses  in  the 
brokli  son  of  Athacan,  the  smith,  raised  this  cross  for  his  soul  '^'^  °f  ^an. 
and  that  of  his  faithful  friend  Gant  who  made  this  cross  and  all  [the 
crosses  in  Man  "]  (?)  Another,  at  the  same  church,  represents  a  stag 
hunt;  on  one  edge,  interlaced  work,  on  the  other  the  figure  of  an  armed 
warrior.  Inscription,  "  Eyolf  the  son  of  Thorolf  the  Red,  raised  this 
cross  after  [?'.  c,  in  memory  of]  his  foster  son."  At  Kirk  Andreas  is  the 
fragment  of  a  cross  which  commemorates  a  crime.  "  Oskitel  betrayed 
in  trust  his  sworn  friend  "  '' 

In  the  instances  of  the  crosses  of  which  illustrations  are  given,  the 
first  is  a  token  of  conjugal  affection  having  an  inscription  that  "  Sandulf 
the  Swarthy  erected  this  cross  to  his  wife  Arnbjorg. "  It  is  evidently  of 
Scandinavian  origin.  The  inscription  on  the  second  reads,  "  Mai  Lum- 
kun  erected  this  cross  to  his  foster-father  Malmor,  or  Mai  Muru." 
These  names  show  a  Gaelic  derivation.' 

Ireland  presents  crosses  pre-eminent  for  grace  and  beauty.     The  island 

■  Daniel  Wilson,  Arc/u€oloi;y  and  Prelustoric  Aiiiinls  of  Scot/and,  pp.  501-505.  The  sym- 
bols on  the  Scandinavian  crosses  are  easily  understood  by  a  reference  to  their  mythology  which 
furnished  the  symbols  for  the  new  religion  after  the  Northmen  became  Christianized.  Loki  in 
the  beginning  of  time  was  the  mild,  beneficent  warmth  united  to  Odin  or  the  All  Father,  but  he 
descended  to  Midgard,  the  middlemost  part  of  the  earth,  the  dwelling-place  of  man,  and  became 
crafty  and  the  cause  of  evil.  One  of  his  offspring  by  the  giantess  Angurboda,  or  boder  of  sor- 
row, was  Jormundgand,  or  Midgard's serpent.  Thor  is  the  son  of  Odin  and  the  Earth  or  Fjorgvin 
the  vivifying.  Loki  had  made  for  Thor  his  hammer  Mjolnir(the  Fylfot  cross)  the  crusher,  with 
w  hich  he  was  able  to  destroy  all  things  and  to  strike  off  the  head  of  Midgard's  serpent.  Here  we 
have  the  Persian  theology  modified  by  Northern  feeling — the  whole  system  of  Christian  theology, 
even  to  the  Devil's  supplying  the  Cross  with  which  tlie  old  serpent  is  slain. — Thorpe,  A^ort/u-rn 
Mythology,  vol.  i  ,  p.  iSo. 

•  Wilson,  ArcluEology  and  Preliistoric  Annals  of  Scotland,  pp.  540-541. 

'  Fergusson,  Rude  Stone  Monuments,  p.  272, 


268 


History  of  the  Cross 


Crosses  in 
Ireland. 


abounds  with  every  variet\-.  The  simple  incised  pillar,  the  plain  Latin 
cross,  the  circular-headed,  the  flat  disk,  and  what  is  commonly,  though 
incorrectly,  called  the  wheel  cross.'  The  highly  sculp- 
tured crosses  were  generally  erected  between  the  ninth  and 
twelfth  centuries.  The  shafts  are  sometimes  of  low  elevation,  but 
mostly  are  from  eight  to  twenty-fnve  feet  in  height,  from  one  foot  to 
two  and  a  half  in  width,  bv  one  third  in  thickness.  The  transverse  bar  is 
from   three  to  six  feet   in   length,  the  ends   are   squared,  and,   usually. 


Crosses  in  Isle  of  Man,  Bearing  Runic  Inscription.      From  Fergusson's  Jittt/t-  Sto/it'  Mouuuicnts. 

carved,  and  the  upper  arm  is  crowned  with  a  coping  stone.  This  last  is 
a  feature  peculiar  to  Irish  crosses.  The  Crucifixion  is  placed  on  the 
western  side,  our  Lord  being  sometimes  represented  with  Longinus  and 
Stephaton,  or  Calpurinus;  and  other  typical  and  traditional  characters 
and  subjects  are  often  introduced.  The  ornamentation  of  scroll,  ribbon, 
diaper,  net,  chequer,  and  other  work  is  of  exquisite  perfection.  Many 
examples  of  similar  ornamentation  are  found  in  the  ancient  Irish  manu- 
scripts; ex.  gr.  the  ribbon  pattern  is  so  elaborately  wrought  in  the  gospel 

'  Probably  this  is  meant  for  the  nimbus,  glory,  or  aureole,  whicli  is  placed  around  the  heads 
of  the  Divine  Persons  and  saints  in  Christian  art.  It  originated,  however,  before  Christianity, 
and  was  used  by  the  pagans  as  an  emblem  of  power  and  divinity.  In  a  fresco  at  Pompeii,  repre- 
senting Circe  and  Ulysses,  the  head  of  the  former  is  surrounded  by  an  aureole.  Dyer,  Pompeii, 
p.  313.  In  early  Christian  art,  the  whole  figure  of  our  Lord,  as  well  as  the  other  persons  of  the 
holy  Trinity  and  the  Virgin  Mary,  are  enclosed  \\'ithin  an  aureole.  Didron,  Christ.  Icon. 
Hence  the  use  of  it  on  a  standard  cross,  especially  if  it  bore  the  im.age  of  the  Saviour.  Hesides, 
there  is  a  constructive  reason  ;  the  arms  of  the  crosses  sometimes  extended  several  feet,  requiring 
a  support  ;  the  aureole,  or  wheel,  afforded  this,  and  by  its  graceful  management,  being  sunk  below 
the  surface  of  the  main  ])arls  of  the  cross,  added  beauty,  by  softening  the  abrupt  angles,  as  well 
as  strength  and  symbolic  meaning. 


F 

t 
i 


fc"S.W*, 


'J^'i^'^V: 


'^ 


■   i1 :4- 


yhl^  ^\....k  '^N,/; 


^.^^^v.dii&f.^'-'^^ 


'msm 


si."'  1  i 


,  v^.tf'^v 


■^s 


x: 


^- 


The  Nurlli  t  n.ss,  Clonmacnoise.      l-'rcun  i  I'Ncill  s  c;,'/,uj  <y  Ancient  Irclana. 

269 


270  History  of  the  Cross 

known  as  the  Book  of  Kills,  that  tradition  ascribes  the  work  to  angels." 
But  the  various  patterns  will  be  seen  in  the  engravings. 

It  is  noteworthy  that  all  ornamentation  of  standard  crosses,  whether 
of  simple  or  elaborate  beauty,  is  apparently  derived  from  that  pattern 
revealed  to  Solomon  in  building  his  temple;  cherubim,  palm  trees,  open 
flowers,  bosses,  net  work,  chequer  work,  chain  work,  pomegranates,  lily 
work,  (i  Kings,  vi.  ;  2  Chron.  iii.)  From  Judea,  whether  accidentally 
or  providentially,  we  cannot  say,  these  ornamentations  were  transported 
to  Italy  and  thence  to  the  Western  Churches.  Similar  work  is  found 
in  ancient  Italian  mosaics,  and  in  the  remains  of  the  Roman  villas 
at  Woodchester  and  Woodstock,  and  in  the  Temple  of  Esculapius  at 
Lindsey  Park,  Monmouthshire.  England,  and  in  the  Roman  basilicas 
from  the  fourth  to  the  eleventh  century.'' 

There  is  a  tradition  that  one  of  the  crosses  at  Monasterboice,  that  at 

Ardloc,  and  others  were  the  gift  of  the  Pope,  which  gives  some  reason 

to    suppose   them    of    Italian    origin.'      These    crosses    are 

Cross  at  i  ^  ^ 

Monasterboice.  carvcd  out  of  stonc  not  found  in  the  neighborhood,  and  the 
workmanship  being  superior  to  the  other  ecclesiastical  work  of  the  same 
period,  seems  to  warrant  such  a  conjecture.  In  Irish  crosses  we  find  the 
crucifi.K  with  the  body  having  outstretched  arms,  ami  the  long  tunic  as 
in  early  Latin  and  Greek  art.  This  would  seem  to  bespeak  antiquity,  as 
does  also  the  representation  of  only  those  personages  mentioned  in  the 
Gospels  as  piercing  the  side  and  offering  the  sponge,  and  the  comforting 
angels. 

Among  other  scenes  presented  in  the  sculptures  in  the  panels  are  the 

Nativity,  the  offering  of  the  Magi,  the  Circumcision,  the  Baptism,  the 

Slaurrhter  of  the  Innocents,  Jesus  with  the  doctors  in  the 

Scenes  Repre-  ^  -' 

sented  on  Crosses,  x^mple,  the  ovcrthrow  of  the  money  changers,  the  blessing 
of  the  little  children,  the  entr\-  into  Jerusalem,  the  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,  the  Agony  in  the  Garden,  the  "  Eccc  Homo  "  and  the  attendant 
soldiers  with  heads  resembling  those  of  birds  of  prey,  Jesus  .surrounded 
with  dogs  tearing  him,  in  reference  to  the  prophecy,  "  Many  dogs  are 
come  about  me"  ;  the  Crucifixion,  and  the  instruments  of  the  Passion, 
etc.     These  occupy  the  western  face  :  on  the  eastern  is  generally  rcpre- 

'  Within  the  past  thirty  years  an  eminent  artist  in  Unblin  declined  tracing  lliis  work  on 
reverential  grounds.     (Eng.)  Ecclesiotogist,  vol.  vi.,  pp.  93,  94. 
^/bid.,  p.  95. 
•*  //'id. ,  p.  99. 


"""■'.-■  "       y 

The  Southeast  Cross.  Monnsterboice.      From  OXeill's  Crossi-s  of  Ancient  Ireland. 

271 


2  72  History  of  the  Cross 

sented  the  Day  of  Judgment,  in  which  our  Lord  often  holds  a  double 
cross  emblematic  of  his  twofold  authority,  instead  of  the  simple  cross 
of  suffering.  The  most  frequent  Old  Testament  subjects  are  those  of 
Adam  and  Eve,  the  Ark,  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  Joseph  sold  to  the  Ish- 
maelites,  David  playing  upon  his  harp,  or  rescLiing  the  lamb  from  the 
lion,  Nebuchadnezzar  feeding  with  the  oxen,  the  erection  of  the  Temple, 
etc.  The  crucifixion  of  S.  Peter  is  common,  which  fact  is  easily  ex- 
plained, if  we  adopt  the  theory  of  the  Ecclcsiologist  of  the  Italian  origin 
of  many  of  the  most  beautiful  crosses.  It  is  significant  that  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  blessed  Virgin  and  holy  Child  are  not  found,  it  is  be- 
lieved, on  many  crosses. 

The  examples  of  standard  crosses  have  been  taken  mainly  from  Great 
Britain,  because  there  and  in  Ireland  some  of  the  most  beautiful,  correct, 
and  easily  visited  specimens  exist  and  also  because  the  events  memorial- 
ized are  of  special  interest  to  us  of  the  younger  world.  Examples  might 
be  cited  from  other  parts  of  Europe.  One,  no  lover  of  liberty  could  pass 
by  unnoticed.  A  pillar  bearing  four  crosses,  marks  the  place  of  martyr- 
dom of  Arnold  von  Winkelried.  At  the  battle  of  Sempach,  July  9, 
1386,  the  Austrians  presented  a  serried  rank  of  spears,  invincible  to  the 
poorly  armed  Swiss.  An  opening  must  be  made.  Arnold  von  Winkel- 
ried rushed  forward,  and  swept  all  the  pikes  within  his  grasp  into  his  own 
bosom,  thus  making  a  way  for  his  countrymen  at  the  sacrifice  of  his  own 
life.  They  availed  themselves  of  this  offering  to  liberty  and  victory  was 
achieved.  Two  thousand  Austrians  fell  that  day  and  but  two  hundred 
Swiss. 

"  Then  lost  was  banner,  s|.iear,  and  shield. 
At  Sempach  in  the  flight  ; 
The  cloister  vaults  at  Konigsfifkl 
Hold  many  an  Austrian  Knight." 

Love  and  mammon  have  conquered  bigotry  in  the  \-illage  of  Heems- 

kerk   in    Holland.     The   celebrated   Dutch   painter   Martin    Heemskerk, 

known   also  as  Van  Veen,  who  died  in  Is74.,  acred  seventy- 
Crossover  J/T'      &  J 

Heemskerk.  six,  fur  the  sakc  of  leaving  some  memorial  of  himself,  be- 
queatheil  a  sum  sufficient  for  a  dowry  annually  to  one  young  woman  of 
his  village,  on  condition  that  the  bride  and  bridegroom  should  on  the  day 
of  marriage  go  and  dance  on  his  grave.  "  Which,"  saith  our  author, 
I  was  assured  was  so  religioiislv  observed,   that   notwithstanding  the 


§^-^.^r^   " 


1  >runiclilt  Lro::>s.      !■  roni  U  Ncili'^  /-iiu-  Arts  oj  Aiwi.fit  Jr..!ji;d. 


273 


2  74  History  of  the  Cross 

change  in  religion  whicli  happened  in  that  country  caused  all  the  crosses 
in  cemeteries  to  be  demolished,  the  inliabitants  of  Heemslcerk  would  not 
permit  that  on  the  grave  of  this  painter  to  suffer  a  like  fate.  It  is  of 
copper,  and  serves  as  a  deed  of  settlement  of  the  dowry  or  ordination 
made  to  their  daughters."  ' 

The  Reverend  Dr.  Cullen,  the  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin, during  the  rage  of  the  rinderpest  in  1866,  urged  upon  his  flock  the 
Restoration  of  restoratiou  of  the  early  pious  uses  of  the  cross.  "  To  all 
in^xixth  "^"^^^^  Catholics  I  would  recommend  the  use  each  day,  of  the 
Century.  praycrs  against  pestilence,   which  are  found  in  all  prayer- 

books,  or  those  contained  in  the  missal.  I  would  also  recommend  them 
to  get  their  parks  and  fields  blessed  with  prayers  given  in  the  Roman 
ritual,  and  also  to  erect  crosses  on  their  lands,  and  keep  them  in  their 
dwellings,  in  the  hope  that  this  emblem  of  the  triumph  of  Christ  over 
his  enemies  may  put  to  flight  the  powers  of  darkness,  and  preserve  us 
from  their  wicked  influence.  Public  and  private  prayers,  holy  water, 
and  the  Cross  are  looked  on  by  infidelity  or  heresy  as  things  to  be 
despised,  but  every  pious  Catholic  knows  their  virtue  and  efficacy. 
Would  to  God  that  all  these  means  of  obtaining  assistance  from  Heaven 
were  in  general  use,  and  especially  that  the  image  and  Cross  of  our  Re- 
deemer were  more  commonly  erected  as  objects  of  veneration,  and  as 
memorials  of  the  sufferings  of  our  Lord,  in  market  places,  and  at  cross 
roads,  according  to  the  pious  practice  of  our  forefathers  in  the  faith."  ' 

^  Entreticns  sur  les  Vies  el  sur  /es  Oiiz'i-at^es  des  plus  cxccllcnls  peiiilrcs,  par  M.  Felibien, 
torn.  ii..  p.  235,  Amsterdam,  1706. 

"■  Xew  York  Evening  Post,  March  24,  1S66. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

MEMORIAL   CROSSES 

THE  Cross  is  indeed  a  Catholic  emijicm.  It  may  sanctify  the  grave 
of  a  slave,  or  the  tomb  of  an  Emperor.  It  may  be  a  stone  of 
covenant  between  two  private  families,  or  a  record  of  an  subjects  of  Me- 
event  decisive  of  the  fate  of  empires.  No  other  symbol  is  moriai  crosses, 
so  universally  appropriate.  It  is  never  out  of  place,  never  offensive  to 
taste,  unless  maltreated  by  ignorance  or  pretension.  For  instance,  in 
Ely  Cathedral,  there  is  preserved  the  shaft  of  a  cross,  in  memory  of  S. 
Onen,  steward  of  S.  Ethelreda,  A.D.  679,  inscribed  "  Liiccuiii  tiiaiit  OviJio 
da  Dens  ct  Rcqiiiaui."  Ami  in  Lhmdivailog  churchyard  is  a  cross,  bear- 
ing a  rude  carving  of  a  warrior,  commemorative  of  Broemail,  Prince  of 
Powis,  who  defeated  Ethelbred,  King  of  Northumberland,  A.D.  617. 

To  the  archaeologist,  memorial  crosses  oftentimes  are  precious,  as 
giving  examples,  in  their  carvings,  of  garb  or  implements  of  the  age  in 
which  they  were  erected.  For  example,  at  Old  Kilcullun,  in  County 
Kildare,  Ireland,  there  is  a  memorial  cross  to  the  founder  of  the  church, 
on  which  is  sculptured  a  bishop  with  his  attendant  deacon,  his  crosier, 
his  leathern  case  for  the  Gospels,  his  alms  purse,  and  bell. 

Sometimes  the  cross  is  an  e.Kpression  of  family  love.  A  pillar,  prob- 
ably a  fragment  of  a  cross,  in  Wales,  is  inscribed,  "  Concewn,  great 
grandson  of  Elisey,  erected  this  column  to  his  great-grandfather  Elisey." 
Sometimes  the  sign  of  our  Lord  has  been  erected  as  an  expiatory  offer- 
ing. We  read  the  lines,  perhaps  inscribed  by  a  heart-broken  mother,  on 
a  cross  near  the  church  of  S.  Michael  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  "  Yov  the  sins 
of  Ivalfir,  son  of  Dinal.  this  stone  was  erected  by  his  mother  Aftride. " 
Baptisms,  councils,  etc.,  were  often  commemorated  by  a  cross,  but  a 
greater  number  of  memorial  crosses  extant  tell  of  stories  incongruous 

275 


276  History  of  the  Cross 

with  the  symbol  of  the  Prince  of  Peace.     The  resuh  of  a  war  was  often 

memoriahzed   upon   a  cross.     A   curious   instance   may   be   found    near 

Whiteleaf,    Brockinsjhamshire,    Enijland.       Like    the    cele- 

Whiteleaf  Cross. 

brated  Wliite  Horse  in  Berkshire,  it  is  cut  on  a  high,  chalky 
cliff.  The  perpendicular  is  nearly  a  hundred  feet,  and  the  transverse 
seventy.  The  trench  is  from  two  to  three  feet  in  depth,  and  like  the 
Horse,  its  scouring  is  succeeded  by  a  festival.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
commemorative  of  a  victory  by  Edward  the  Elder,  son  of  Alfred  the 
Great,  about  the  year  905. 

W'e   cannot   note   the   tithe  of  these   monuments  interesting  to  the 

reader,  but  those  connected  with  events  immortalized  by  Shakespeare 

cannot   be  passed   by.      We  hear  the  "  All  Hail!  "   of  the 

Cross  Memorial-  ' 

ized  by  Shake-     witchcs  in   "thuuder,   lightning,   and    in  rain,"    as   we  ap- 

speare.  ^  ,  .  i-    i         , 

proach  hweno  s  stone  near  Torres.  It  is  a  monolith  about 
twenty-five  feet  high.  On  one  side  are  represented  warriors,  both 
horse  and  footmen,  engaged  in  a  desperate  conflict,  as  is  indicated  by 
the  number  of  the  fallen,  many  with  their  heads  dissevered  from 
their  bodies.  Other  carvings  represent  a  procession  as  if  in  invasion. 
On  the  reverse  is  inscribed,  in  its  whole  length,  a  cross  elaborately  or- 
namented. According  to  tradition,  this  cross  was  erected  as  a  memorial 
of  the  treaty  between  Svend  Tveskjaeg  and  King  Malcolm,  and  also 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  Danes  from  the  coasts  of  Moray '  (circa  eleventh 
century). 

Another  Shakespearian  cross  ma\-  be  found  in  Stainmore.     A  frag- 
ment onl}-  remains.      It  was  erected  to  commemorate  the  treaty  between 
William,  King  of  England,  and  the  son  of  the  "  gracious 

stainmore  Cross.  . ,   i,  r     i        i         r^  ti        i  i        i         r  i 

Duncan,  Malcolm  Lanmore.  I  he  latter  had  refused  to  give 
up  to  the  English  sovereign  the  mother  and  sisters  of  Edgar  Atheling, 
who  had  been  forced  by  stress  of  weather  into  the  Frith  of  Forth. 
Malcolm  was  probably  influenced  as  much  by  the  beauty  of  Margaret 
Atheling,  for  she  was  one  of  the  fairest  women  of  the  time,  as  by  the 
laws  of  hospitality.  On  one  side  of  the  cross  is  sculptured  the  I^nglish 
king,  on  the  other  the  .Scotch,  each  facing  his  own  country."  It  was 
called  Roi  crossc,  corrupted  into  Ree  or  Rere  cross.  Scott  refers  to  it  in 
his  ballad  of  AIlan-a-Dalc  : 

'  Worsaae,  Danes  and  h'or-,iiegians  in  F.ni;land,  p.  215. 

'  liritton,  Arckitectiiyal  Antiquities  of  Great  Britain,  vol.  i.,  ji.  92. 


Memorial  Crosses  277 

"  And  the  best  of  our  nobles  his  bonnet  will  vail, 
\Vh(j  at  Rerc  cross,  in  Stainmore,  meets  AUan-a-Dale." 

Another  cross,  revered  because  our  Shakespeare  has  consecrated  it,  is 
that  of  Kihisea,  on  the  coast  of  Holderness,  Yorkshire.  It  comnicni- 
oratcs  the  landiiiij  of  Henry  Bolingbroke,  afterwards  Henry 

T\r  11  1      •  /^>,         1  -1  Kilnsea  Cross. 

IV.,  at  l\a\'ensjnirL;ii  in  1 399.  On  tiie  west  side  are  repre- 
sented the  blessed  Virgin  and  S.  John  ;  abo\'e  is  a  figure  being  crowned 
by  a  female.  On  the  east  side  are  the  same  figures  and  two  busts, 
nearly  obliterated,  and  two  dogs.  As  in  Irish  crosses,  these  are  com- 
mon, apparently  referring  to  a  state  of  tribulation.  "  Many  dogs  came 
about  me"  (Ps.  .x.xii.  16),  propheticall)'  mourned  the  royal  Psalmist  of 
Israel.  In  1818,  in  consequence  of  the  encroachments  of  the  sea,  this 
interesting  relic  was  removed  to  the  park  of  Marmaduke  Constable, 
Esq.,  in  Holderness.' 

Near  Lindores,  on  the  boundary  between  Fife  and  Stratham,  is  a 
cross  dedicated  to  S.  Magider,  but  it  is  better  known  as  Macduff's 
Cross.     After  the  death  of  Macbeth,  King  Malcolm  granted 

,,         ^T^i  f    T^-i-         1  r  1  1  11-       Macduff's  Cross. 

to  the  1  hane  of  I'lfe  three  requests  :  first,  that  he  and  his 
successors  might  place  the  crown  on  the  King's  head  at  his  coronation, 
second,  that  they  might  lead  the  van  in  battle,  and  last,  that  if  any  of 
the  kinsmen  of  Macduff,  within  the  ninth  degree,  should  commit  acci- 
dental homicide,  he  should  have  the  privilege  of  sanctuary  at  this  cross, 
and  total  remission  of  the  crime  on  the  payment  of  a  penalty;  which, 
according  to  some  accounts,  was  that  of  nine  cows  and  a  heifer.  This 
cross  was  demolished  by  the  fanatic  followers  of  Knox.  Its  pedestal 
only  remains,  aromul  which  are  tunuili,  said  to  be  the  graves  of  those 
who  sought  sanctuary  but  failed  to  prove  the  required  relationship  ;  their 
spirits  are  believed  still  to  haunt  the  spot,  praying  for  that  mercy  for 
their  souls  which  was  denied  their  bodies.'' 

The  bloody  story  of  Croyland  is  memorialized  by  the  remains  of  its 
cross.  In  brief,  it  reads  as  follows.  During  the  inwasion  of  the  Danes, 
the  Abbey  of  Croyland  received  notice  of  their  approach. 

•'J  1  r  Cross  at  Croy- 

The  younger  of  the  monks  were  hastily  concealed  in  a  neigh-  ''""'• 

boring  wood  with  the  charters,  relics,  and  jewels.     The  Abbot  Theodore, 

'  Gentleman's  Mug.,  May,  1821.  Within  the  past  five  hundred  years,  Ravenspurgh,  ciiice  the 
rival  of  Hul),  has  lieeii  devoured  by  the  sea.     .Shoals  exist  wliere  once  was  a  harbor. 

*  Scott,  Minstrelsy  of  the  Scottish  Border,  "Lord  Soules,"  note  B,  and  "Macduff's 
Cross." 


278  History  of  the  Cross 

in  company  with  the  more  aged  of  the  monks  and  the  chiklren,  awaited 
the  coming  of  the  enemy,  hoping  that  the  venerable  appearance  of  the 
brethren,  some  of  whom  were  over  a  hundred  years  old,  and  the  youth 
of  the  children,  might  be  safeguards.  In  the  solitude  of  the  place,  the 
Danes  might  have  passed  the  abbey  unnoticed,  but  the  distant  chant  of 
the  matins  betrayed  it.  Just  as  Theodore  had  communicated,  the  Danes 
forced  the  gates,  and  Asketiel,  one  of  the  chiefs,  smote  off  the  Abbot's 
head  at  the  steps  of  the  altar.  All  were  slain,  save  the  children  and  the 
more  aged  monks,  who  were  reserved  for  torture  in  hopes  that  their 
weakness  would  induce  them  to  disclose  the  hiding-place  of  the  treasures. 
But  their  heroic  constancy  disappointed  the  enemy.  Only  one  \ictim 
was  spared.  Turgar,  a  boy  of  ten  years,  would  not  be  separated  from 
his  tutor,  the  sub-prior  Lethioins,  but  when  the  latter  was  stabbed  to 
death  the  child  prayed  to  share  his  fate.  Sidroc,  a  Danish  jarl.  struck 
with  the  beauty  of  the  boy,  tore  his  cowl  from  his  head,  threw  his  cloak 
over  him,  and  saved  him. 

For  three  days  the  Danes  ransacked  S.  Guthlake,  sparing  not  even 
the  tombs,  knowing  that  in  them  were  often  buried  valuable  crosiers, 
chalices,  and  rings.  On  the  fourth  day,  after  setting  the  abbey  on  fire, 
they  proceeded  to  Medeshamstide,  since  called  Peterborough.  Here  the 
tragedy  was  re-enacted;  but  the  Danes  found  richer  spoil,  as  that  abbey 
not  only  contained  its  own  treasures,  but  those  of  the  neighborhood, 
which  had  been  brought  within  its  walls  for  safe-keeping.  The  pillage 
and  massacre  lasted  fifteen  days,  during  which  Hubba,  a  Danish  king, 
slew  the  Abbot  and  eighty-three  monks  with  his  own  hand,  to  revenge  a 
wound  inflicted  upon  his  brother. 

Sidroc,  anxious  to  save  Turgar,  allowed  him  to  escape.  He  fled  by 
night  to  the  ruins  of  Croyland,  where  he  found  the  residue  of  the  monks 
who  had  returned.  Godric  was  chosen  by  them  to  fill  the  place  of 
Theodore,  and  under  his  direction  the  half-consumed  bodies  of  their 
slau<jhtered  brethren  were  dragged  from  the  ruins,  and  buried  with 
Christian  rites.  Scarcely  had  this  sad  office  been  completed,  when  they 
performed  the  same  holy  office  for  the  corpses  of  Medeshamstide.  Godric 
raised  a  pyramid  of  stones  on  which  was  engraved  the  history,  and  oppo- 
site to  this  he  erected  a  cross  bearing  an  image  of  our  Lord,  not  only  to 
rescue  the  spot  from  profanation,  but  also  to  induce  the  passers-by  to 
offer  a  prayer  for  the  repose  of  the  martyrs.      During  his  life  he  visited 


Memorial  Crosses  279 

the  spot  on  each  anniversary  of  the  massacre,  and  spent  two  da\'s  in 
celebrating  masses,  and  performing  the  other  devotions  to  which  Catiio- 
lic  charity  has  attributed  the  power  of  benefiting  the  souls  of  the 
departed.' 

A  few  years  ago  an  interesting  cross  was  discovered  at  Kirkbradden, 
Isle  of  Man.  It  is  a  wheel  cross  about  four  feet  high,  and  nearly  the 
same  in  width.  In  the  four  compartments  of  the  cross  are  animals, 
three  of  which  resemble  cats,  and  the  last  a  mouse.  Chainwork  sur- 
rounds the  circle.  The  figures  have  a  reference  to  the  Isiac  mysteries. 
According  to  Pliny,  Isis,  or  the  moon,  is  symbolized  by  the 

^  ■  '  -^  Cross  at  Kirk- 

figure  of  a  cat.'      In  the  head  of  the  cross  are  two  cats  "  re-        bradden,  isie 

» »  t  T  1  1       -  °^  Man. 

gardant,  with  a  human  face  between  them.  Plutarch  in- 
forms us  that  by  this  is  designated  the  changes  of  the  moon,  regulated 
by  wisdom  and  understanding.'  In  the  first  compartment  the  animal  is 
lean,  in  the  second  more  plump,  in  the  third  not  less  so.  According  to 
Demetrius  Phalereus,  the  cat  has  sympathy  with  the  moon,  increasing  and 
decreasing  in  size  as  that  luminary  waxes  or  wanes;  hence  the  fable  that 
the  moon  has  brought  forth  a  cat.'  In  the  fourth  compartment  is  a 
shrew-mouse,  which  was  supposed  to  exercise  a  malign  influence  on  ani- 
mals. This  had  twenty-eight  teeth,  equal  to  the  number  of  days  in  a 
revolution  of  the  moon  ;  other  of  the  rat  species  had  si.xteen.  Reasoning 
from  the  mythologic  fables  of  Osiris  and  Isis,  he  proceeds  to  show  that 
the  cat  is  the  s3'mbol  of  Isis,  or  the  moon,  and  a  type  of  Noah's  Ark, 
especially  when  the  moon  is  increasing  in  size.  The  mygale,  or  shrew- 
mouse,  is  also  Isis  and  the  ark  when  the  moon  is  decreasing.  The  ark 
was  also  represented  under  the  figure  of  a  ship  called  Baris  by  Egyptians; 
it  was  a  kind  of  crescent,  hence  a  symbol  of  the  moon,  which,  by  the 
Egyptians,  was  considered  as  the  mother  of  all  things.  This  nation  also 
used  the  moon  and  ark  as  synonymous  terms.  As  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Isle  of  Man  came  from  the  East,  they  are  supposed  to  have  brought 
the  Isiac  mysteries  with  them,  along  with  other  religious  rites." 

The  most  celebrated  memorial  crosses  are  those  reared,  at  the  instance 

'  Lingard,  Antiquities  of  t/ie  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  chap.  xi. 
'  Pliny,  Natural  Hist.,  lib.  xvi.,  c.  2g. 
^  Plutarch,  Isis  and  Osiris,  c.  64. 
^  Demetrius  Phalereus,  De  Elocution,  g  159. 

^Condensed  from  an  article  by  Geo.  Dobbs,  D.D.,  on  the  symbolism  of  an  ancient  stone 
found  at  Kirkbradden,  Isle  of  Man,  in  the  Gentleman  s  Mag.,  November,  1S66. 


A 


Gccldington  Cross.      From  Flritton's  Arcliitectio-al  Antiijuitics. 


2S0 


Memorial  Crosses  281 

of  royal  affection,  by  Edward  I.  of  F.n^dand,  at  the  resting-places  for  a 
night  of  the  corpse  of  his  queen,  Eleanor,  during  her  removal  from 
Hardeby,  in  Nottinghamshire,  to  Westminster,  from  the  Queen  Eleanor 
4th  to  the  17th  of  December,  1290.'     Originally,  they  were  crosses, 

fifteen  in  number,"  but  only  three  remain;  those  at  Geddington, 
Northampton,  and  Waltham.  Vertue  and  W'alpole  suppose  that  Pietro 
Cavallini,"  an  Italian  architect,  was  the  builder,  but  Pilkington  and 
Bromley  contest  this  statement,'  yet  it  is  thought  that  the  son  of  Caval- 
lini  built  the  one  at  Stamford. 

The  cross  at  Geddington,  Northampton,  is  of  triangular  shape,  ele- 
vated on  eight  steps,  and  of  three  stages.  The  first  is  solid-covered 
diaper  sculpture  of  six  panels,  bearing  shields  charged  with  cross  of 

the  arms  of  England,  Castile,  Leon,  and  Ponthieu;  above  Geddington. 
rises  the  canopied  tabernacle  containing  the  statue  of  the  Queen.  The 
cross  of  Northampton  is  the  most  perfect  of  the  three.  It  is  octagonal 
in  shape,  surmounted  on  eight  steps,  and  of  three  stages.  Two  shields 
are  attached  to  each  panel,  charged  with  the  arms  of  England  and 
Ponthieu  singly,  and  of  Castile  and  Leon  quarterly.  A  carved  book  is 
also  affixed  to  four  sides.  On  the  western  face  has  been  inserted  the 
arms  of  Great  Britain  in  a  garter,  under  a  crown,  beneath  which  is  this 
inscription:  " /«  perpctuain  conjiigalis  amor  is  iiiciuoriain  hoc  Elcanorm 
Regiim  viomtmcntum  vctiistatc  pcuc  collapsiun,  rcstaurari  voluit  lionorabilis 
justiciariorum  cat  us  couiitatus  NorthaiiiptoiiuE  M.DCC.XIII.  Anno  illo 
felicissinio,  in  quo  An)ia,  Grande  Britannia  suce  dccus.  potcutissniia  op- 
prcssoruui    vindcx  pascis  Bclliquc   arbitra,  post    Gcrmaiiiain    libcratain, 

'  Gough  states  that  such  memorials  as  these  are  unparalleled  in  any  other  kingdom.  The 
nearest  approach  was  the  work  of  Philip  III.  of  P'rance  when  he  brought  home  the  remains  of 
his  father,  Louis  IX.,  who  died  at  Tunis  x.D.  1270  ;  those  of  his  wife,  Isabella  of  Aragon,  who 
died  at  Cozenza  in  the  same  year ;  and  those  of  his  brother,  the  Count  of  Nevers.  The  King 
made  a  magnificent  funeral  in  honor  of  them,  and  also  erected  monumental  towers  at  certain  dis- 
tances on  the  road  from  Paris  to  S.  Denis,  containing  statues  of  life  size  of  Lewis  the  Count  of 
Nevers,  of  Robert  the  Count  of  Clermont,  and  of  himself.  These  towers,  which  were  forty  feet 
in  height,  were  erected  between  the  years  1270  and  1286,  and  were  destroyed  in  the  Revolution 
at  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Bloxam,  Mouumcntal  Architecture,  p.  143  ;  Rimmer, 
Ancient  Stone  Crosses  of  England,  p.  44. 

■^  Some  antiquarians  limit  the  number  to  twelve.  But  in  the  Arc/uroloc;iie,  vol.  xxix.,  p.  172, 
etc.,  fifteen  are  enumerated:  Lincoln,  Grantham,  Stamford,  Geddington,  Northampton,  Stony- 
Stratford,  Woburn,  Dunstable,  St.  Albans,  Waltham,  West  Cheap,  Charing,  Hardley,  Newark, 
Leicester.     Rimmer  omits  the  last  three. 

^  The  same  who  carried  the  crucifix  in  "  S.  Paul's  Beyond  the  Walls"  at  Rome,  famous  for 
having  spoken  to  S.  Bridget.     See  infra,  part  iii. ,  chap.  viii. 

■*  Britton,  Architect.  Aniiq.,  vol.  i.,  p.  S3. 


I'ff  -   k   -I 


I '  if 


^         '  /        M  ^^#  ft 


The  Queen's  Cross,  near  Northampton.     From  Britton's  Architectural  Aiitiqiiities. 


2S2 


Memorial  Crosses 


28- 


m 

mm 


<'?>\/\ 


Bclgiaiii  pnvsidiis  tnuuitniii,  Gallos  plus  vice  dcciiiia  profligatos,  sia's 
socioruniqiic  annis  I  'iiiccndi  inodiun  statitit,  ct  Eiiropce  in  libcrtatcm  vin- 
dicate Pacem  rcstitiiit."  On  another  tablet  is  the  following  inscription  : 
"  Riirsiis  cinciidat,  ct  vcstaurat.  Gcorgii  III.  regis  2''°  Domini  IJ62.  N. 
Baylis.'"  The  cross  at  Waltham,  Hert- 
fordshire, is  more  dilapidated  than 
either  of  the  others,  but  its  details  are 
far  richer,  and  show  it  to  be  the  wreck 
of  a  more  elaborate  and  magnificent 
structure  than  the  others.  Its  shape 
was  hexagonal. 

But  the  most  celebrated,  owing  to 
the  memory  of  the  historical  events 
which  cluster  about  them,  of  the  Elea- 
nor crosses  were  those  of  Cheapside 
and  Charing.  The  former  stood  a  little 
west  of  Bow  Church  and  resembled  very 
closely  the  cross  of  Northampton.  It 
was  considered  the  most  beautiful  in 
England.  Worthy  old  Peter  Heylin 
gives  an  interesting  account  of  this  cross  ^\  "^EP 
which  is  too  long  to  be  inserted  ;  there- 
fore, with  regret,  we  condense.  It  was 
originally  erected  in  1 290,  and  repaired  at  Waltham  Cross, 

the  expense  of  di\-ers  worthy  citizens  in  the  times  of  Henry  VI.  and  Henry 
VII.,  1441  and  i486,  and  was  regilded  in  1522  "  for  the  entertainment  of 
tlie  Emperor  Charles  the  Fifth;  new  burnished  against  the  coronation  of 
O.  Anne  Bullen,  Anno  1533;  as  afterwards  at  the  coronation      _. 

'-  '  JJJ^  Cheapside  and 

of  King  Edward  the  Sixth,  and,  finally,  at  the  Magnificent  channg  crosses. 
Reception  of  King  Philip,  1554.  And  having  for  so  long  time  continued 
an  undefaced  Monument  of  Christian  Piety,  was  quarrelled  with  by  the 
Puritans  of  the  present  Reign;  who  being  emulous  of  the  zeal  of  the 
French  Calvinians  whom  they  found  to  have  demolished  all  crosses 
wheresoever  they  came ;  they  caused  this  Cross  to  be  presented  in 
several  Ward  motes,  for  standing  in  the  High-way  to  hindering  of 
Carts  and  other  carriages;  but  finding  no  remedy  in  that  course,  they 

'  Britton,  Architectural  Antiquities,  vol.  i.,  p.  84. 


Waltham  Cross.     From  hi'Moiii,  Aic/'iiUduial AnliqHilies. 


284 


Memorial  Crosses  285 

resolved  to  apply  themselves  to  another.  In  pursuance  whereof  they 
first  set  upon  it  in  the  night,  June  21,  yVnm.  1581,  violently  breaking  and 
defacing  all  the  lowest  Images  which  were  placed  rounil  about  the  same; 
that  is  to  say,  the  Images  of  Christ's  Resurrection,  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
K.  Edward  the  Confessor  &c.  But  more  particularly  image  of  the 
the  Image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  was  at  that  time  robbed        "^''s'"  ^^^'^ 

t>  o  Broken. 

of  her  son,  and  her  arms  broke  by  which  she  held  him 
in  her  lap,  and  her  whole  body  haled  with  ropes  and  left  likely  to 
fall."  The  cross  was  partially  repaired,  the  image  of  Christ  being 
left  broken,  "  And  on  the  East  side  of  the  said  Cross  where  the  steps 
had  been,  was  then  set  up  a  curious  wrought  Tabernacle  of  gray 
Marble,  and  in  the  same  an  Alabaster  Image  of  Diana,  from  whose 
naked  breasts  there  trilled  continually  some  streams  of  Water  conveyed 
into  it  from  the  Thames.  But  tiie  madness  of  this  Faction  could  not  be 
so  stayed ;  for  the  next  year  (that  I  may  lay  all  things  together  which 
concern  this  cross)  a  new  misshapen  Son,  as  born  out  of  time,  all  naked, 
was  put  into  the  arms  of  the  Virgin's  Image,  to  serve  as  matter  of  de- 
rision to  the  common  people.  And  in  the  year  1599  the  Figure  of  the 
Cross  erected  on  the  top  of  the  pile  was  taken  down  by  Public  Order 
under  pretence  that  otherwise  it  might  have  fallen  and  endangered  many, 
with  intent  to  raise  a  pyramid  or  spire  in  the  place  thereof."  But  the 
Lords  of  the  Council  ordered  the  Cross  to  be  replaced,  "  which  gave 
such  fresh  displeasure  to  some  zealous  Brethren,  that  within  twelve 
nights  after,  the  Image  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  was  again  defaced  by  pluck- 
ing off  her  crown,  and  almost  her  head ;  dispossessing  her  of  her  naked 
Child,  and  stabbing  her  into  the  breast  S:c.      Most  ridiculous  follies."  ' 

Heylin  notices  the  divine  retributions  on  the  sacrilegious  wretches — 
we  give  the  whole  paragraph  as  exhibiting  the  spirit  and  spoliations  of 
these  sacrilegious  "  trouble  tombs."  By  an  ordinance  of  their  Parlia- 
ment "  they" — I.  i\,  the  visitors, — "  descend  to  the  taking  away  all 
Coaps,  surplices,  and  other  Superstitious  Vestments,  (as  they  pleased  to 
call  them)  as  also  to  the  taking  away  all  Organs,  and  the  Cases  in  which 
they  stood,  and  the  defacing  of  the  same,  requiring  the  same  course  to 
be  taken  also  in  the  removing  and  displacing  of  Roods,  Rood-Lofts,  and 
Holy-water  Fonts  (as  if  any  such  things  had  been  of  late  erected,  or  per- 
mitted in  the  Church  of  England,  as  indeed  they  were  not)  whereupon 

'  Ileylin,  History  of  the  Preshytcrians    p.  343. 


286 


History  of  the  Cross 


followed  the  defacing  of  all  Glass  Windows,  and  the  demolishing  of  all 
Organs  within  the  compass  of  their  power;  the  transposing  of  the  holy 
table  from  the  place  of  the  altar,  into  some  part  of  the  Church,  or 
Chancel,  the  tearing  and  defacing  of  all  Coaps  and  surijlices,  or  other- 
wise employing  them  to  domestic  uses,  finalh'  the  breaking  down  and 
removing  of  the  Sacred  Fonts,  anciently  used  for  the  Ministration  of 
holy  baptism,  the  name  of  Holy  water  fonts  being  extended  and  made 


^1 


Abingdon  Cross. 


Charing  Cross. 


use  of  to  comprise  them  also,  hereupon  followed  also  the  defacing  and 
demolishing  of  many  Crosses  erected  as  the  Monuments  of  Christianity 
in  Cities,  Towns,  and  most  of  our  Country  Villages,  none  being  spared 
which  came  within  the  compass  of  those  enemies  of  the  Cross  of  Christ. 
"  Amongst  which  Crosses  none  more  eminent  for  cost  and  Workman- 
ship, than  those  of  Chcapside  in  London,  and  Abingdon  in  the  County 
of  Berks,  both  of  them  famous  for  the  excellencies  of  the  Statues  which 
were  placed  in  them,  more  for  the  richness  of  the  trimming  which  was 


Memorial  Crosses  287 

used  about  them.  But  tliu  Divine  VeiiLieaiicc  fell  on  sonic  of  the  Exe- 
cutioners, for  a  terror  to  others,  one  of  them  being  killed  in  pulling  down 
tlie  Cross  of  Cheapside,  and  another  hanged  at  Stow  on  the  Wold,  within 
short  time  after  he  had  pulled  down  the  first  Image  of  the  Cross  in 
Abingdon." 

Of  Ciiaring  Cross,'  part  remained  until  the  time  of  Charles  I.  when  it 
was  destroyed  as  a  relic  of  medi.eval  popish  superstition.  In  1633,  a 
brass  statue  of  the  king — the  first  equestrian  statue  in  Eiig- 

Charing  Cross. 

land — Nvas  executed  by  Le  Saur  for  the  Earl  of  Arundel, 
but  was  not  erected  on  the  site  of  Charing  Cross  until  1678.  The  pedes- 
tal was  the  work  of  Grinling  Gibbons.  The  Puritan  Parliament  ordered 
it  to  be  sold  and  broken  into  pieces,  but  the  brazier,  one  John  Rives,  who 
purchased  it,  being  a  true  lu_\-alist,  buried  the  statue  unmutilated,  and 
casting  a  vast  number  of  brazen  handles  of  knives  and  forks,'  sold  them 

'  .According  to  a  lale  writer,  Ciiaring  Cross  is  not  tleriveil,  as  has  been  supposed,  from  dure 
riinr\  but  civrt\  Anglo-Saxon  for  bend,  and  ///;',  i.e.,  meadow — therefore  Charing  means  meadow 
by  the  bend,  for  the  river  here  makes  a  turn  to  the  south.  Nor  is  it  the  work  of  Pielro  Caval- 
lini,  but  of  Richard  and  Roger  de  Crundale,  who  received  £iqo  ~s.  91/.  William  Torel  mod- 
elled the  figures,  which  were  executed  by  Alexander  of  Abingdon.  The  one  now  in  Charing 
Cross  Station  is  the  work  of  E.  M.  Barry,  made  from  three  rude  drawings,  which  are  the  only 
extant  records  of  the  Monument. — Ail  the  Year  Round,  no.  170,  p.  526. 

■  Pennant,  London,  p.  150.  Percy's  Rcliqiics  preserves  a  spirited  ballad,  "  The  Downfall 
of  Charing  Cross,"  part  as  follows  : 

The  parliament  to  vote  it  down.  But  neither  man,  woman,  nor  child, 

Conceived  it  very  fitting.  Will  say.  I  'm  confident, 

For  fear  it  should  fall,  and  kill  them  all,  They  ever  heard  it  speak  one  word 

In  the  house  as  they  were  sitting.  Against  the  parliament. 

They  were  told,  C.od  wot.  it  had  a  plot.  An  informer  swore,  it  letters  bore, 

Which  made  them  so  hard-hearted.  Or  else  it  had  been  freed  ; 

To  give  command,  it  should  not  stand,  I  '11  take,  in  troth,  my  Bible  oath, 

But  be  taken  down  and  carted.  It  could  neither  write  nor  read. 


The  committee  said,  that  verily 

To  popery  it  was  bent. 
For  ought  I  know,  it  might  be  so. 

For  to  church  it  never  went. 

The  bitter  feeling  of  the  Puritans  towards  this  cross  is  exhibited  in  a  tract  in  the  author's 
possession,  entitled :  "  The  Crosses  Case  i.v  Che.apside;  Whether  its  Malitia  the  setting  of  it 
in  a  posture  of  defence,  be  according  to  law.  The  contrary  is  maintained  by  one  who 
hath  little  of  that,  we  commonly  call  law,  against  those,  who  have  as  little  of  that,  we  truly 
call  reason.  Notwithstanding,  The  Dispute  is  carried  all  along  in  a  cool  and  orderly  way, 
by  the  Law  of  Heaven,  the  line  and  rule  of  the  Word,  and  as  in  God's  presence,  Who  is 
Judge  Himself,  So  as  the  Man  in  understanding  may  find  strong  Meate  here.  The  Child  Milke. 


288  History  of  the  Cross 

as  true  relics  of  the  statue,  not  only  to  the  loyal  adherents  of  the  Martyr 
King,  who  cherished  them  through  affection,  but  also  to  the  rebel 
roundheads,  who  were  desirous  of  a  token  of  triumph  over  their  murdered 
sovereign. 

"  fer.  X.,  15.  Theyaye  vanityand  tlie  work  0/ errors  :  in  the  Time  of  tlieir  Visitation  they 
shall  perish. 

"Acts,  xxvi.,  32.  This  man  doth  nothing  Worthy  of  death  or  of  bonds.  Acts.  xi.\.,  32. 
Wherefore  Demetrius  ami  the  Craftsmen,  have  a  matter  against  any  Man  the  Law  is  open. 

"  Printed   In  the   CUmacterical    Veare  of  Crosses  and  Crosse  Alen.      For  T.  V.  1642." 

The  title  is  sufficient.     It  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  give  an  abstract  of  the  contents. 


M' 


CHAPTER  XIV 

SANCTUARY   CROSSES 

[OSES    set   aside    certain   cities    of   refuge    in   which  anyone    who 
should  unintentionally  slay  his  neighbor  might  find  shelter  from 
the  avenger  of  blood.     (Deut.  iv.  41,  42.)     The  Jews  in  the  Ancient 

reign  of  Solomon  afforded  the  privilege  of  sanctuary  to  sanctuaries. 
those  who  laid  hold  on  the  horns  of  the  altar  (i  Kings  i.  50-53;  ii.  28- 
33);  although,  as  in  the  case  of  Joab,  the  King  did  not  consider  it 
inviolate. 

Christians  followed  the  Jewish  example.  In  A.D.  392  Honorius  and 
Theodosius  granted  the  protection  of  a  church  and  its  precincts;  prob- 
ably this  is  the  first  legal  recognition  of  the  right.  The  first  Council  of 
Orange,  A.D.  441,  in  its  fifth  canon  ordered  the  right  of  asylum  in  a 
church  to  criminals.  Boniface  V.,  A.D.  620,  gave  papal  sanction  to  the 
right  of  sanctuar^^  and,  in  the  same  century.  King  Ina  recognized  it. 
Alfred,  in  887,  allowed  the  privilege  of  sanctuary  for  seven  nights  in 
order  to  give  time  for  composition.  Afterwards  the  time  was  extended 
in  some  cathedrals.  Cologne  permitted  thirty-seven  days.  "  The  Church's 
Peace,"  as  it  was  called  in  605,  was  extended  in  965  as  the 

Tr  .         •      T->  .  r  1  .,  ,  r       1  Church's  Peace. 

King  s  Frotection,  for  three  mues,  three  furlongs,  and  three 
broad  acres  from  the  gate  of  the  city  in  which  the  royal  palace  stood. 
Canute,  in  loi",  cwnfirmed  the  right  of  sanctuary,  and  Henry  III.  of 
protection,  after  confession  before  the  local  coroner,  while  the  criminal, 
bearing  a  white  cross  or  crucifix,  went  forth  to  perpetual  exile  in  some 
Christian  land. 

While  to  every  church  and  church}-ard  belonged  the  privilege  of 
sanctuary  for  a  short  time,  unless  the  criminal  was  guilty  of  some  special 
crimes  for  which  the  offender  might  be  carried  off  from  the  very  altar, 
the  protection  generally  did  not  extend  beyond  the  burial  ground,  which 

2S9 


290 


History  of  the  Cross 


was  often  guarded  by  four  crosses  at  the  cardinal  points.     The  Anglo- 
Saxons,  wishing  to  show  their  reverence  for  the  saints,  bestowed  upon 
some  churches  a  more  extended  area  of  sanctuary.     A  chair  of  stone, 
called  the  Frid-  or  Frith-siooX  (i.  c,  the  freed  stool,  or  chair 

Frid-  or  Frith- 
Stool  and  its        of    peace)    was    sometimes    set    near   the   shrine   of    certain 

Rights. 

saints,'  or  the  high  altar;  the  churches  of  York,  Croyland, 
Hexham,  and  Beverley  enjoyed  this  privilege,  and  in  the  last  two  these 
stools  are  still  preserved. 

The  rights  of  the  Frithstool  overshadowed  the  region  for  the  distance 
of  a  mile,  and  guarded  to  the  refugee  the  widest  privilege  belonging  by 

charter  to  this  sanctuary, 
as  long  as  he  chose  to 
remain  within  bounds. 
Crosses  marked  the  limits 
of  safety.  At  Beverley 
and  He.xham,  if  anyone  ar- 
rested the  fugitive  within 
the  crosses  he  forfeited 
"  the  two  hundredth;  if 
within  the  town,  the  four 
hundredth;  if  within  the 
courts  of  the  church,  the 

Frithstool,  Beverley  Minster,     From  Lee's  C/«.<7;:,..  six    hundredth  ;     if    within 

the  choir,  the  eighteen  hundredth;  if  from  the  Stool  of  Peace,  the  crime 
was  beyond  the  power  of  money  to  expiate  it.  The  liundredth  was  eight 
pounds.^ 

In  some  cathedrals  there  was  a  special  door — the  north,  in  Durham. 

Here  was  the  knocker"  hagoday,"  of  which  the  fugitive  laid  hold.     The 

Galilee  bell  was  then  tolled  to  give  notice  that  the  sanctuary 

The  Hagoday.  .    ,  ,, 

was  gained.  He  was  clothed  in  a  black  gown  with  a  \-ellow 
cross  on  his  shoulder,  and  provided  with  food  and  lodging  in  a  room 
near  the  Galilee  for  thirty-seven  da\'s.  The  fugitives  were  bound  not 
to  wear  weapons,  to  hear  mass,  and  to  assist  as  bell-ringers.  They 
might  go  with   iiii|uinity  thirty  paces  from   a  church,  and   fnrty  from  a 

'  This  custom  is  noliced  in  the  dying  wish  of  S.  Cuthbcrt,  who  desired  to  be  buried  at 
Fame,  lest,  if  buried  at  I.indisfarne,  his  grave  might  become  a  place  of  refuge  for  runaways. 
Rock.  Church  of  our  Fathers,  vol.  iii.,  j)]).  i,  365. 

'  Ibid.,  pp.  367-369. 


Sanctuary  Crosses  291 

cathedral.  At  the  end  of  the  allotted  time  they  were  forwarded  to  the 
nearest  port. 

Among  persons  of  note  who  thus  sought   safety  were 

*>    ^  "  ^  Notable  Persons 

Margaret  of  Anjou,  and   Perkin   Warbeck,  who  were  shel-         who  sought 

Sanctuary. 

tered  at  Beaulieu  ;  the  Oueen  of  Edward  IV.,  and  Skelton, 
tile  ])oet,  at  Westminster. 

U  a  person  sought  sanctuary  a  third  time,  he  became  a  servant  of 
the  Church.  In  1261,  all  persons  who  prevented  victuals  from  being 
brought  to  the  fugitive,  or  killed  him  after  he  had  forsworn  the  king- 
dom, were  e.Kcommunicate. 

On  the  Continent  the  privilege  of  sanctuary  appears  to  have  been 
still  further  extended.  In  the  XXIXth  and  XXXth  canons  of  the  Council 
of  Clermont,  in  France,  held  in  1095,  it  was  decreed  that  if         ^  .  ., 

■^■^  Privileges  of 

any  person  should  flee  to  a  cross  in  the  road,  he  should  re-         Sanctuary  at 

Wayside  Crosses. 

main  as  free  as  in  the  church  itself;  and  by  the  eighty- 
second  chapter  of  the  ancient  customs  of  Normandy,  anyone  being  con- 
demned, or  having  escaped,  who  could  flee  to  a  church,  churchyard,  or 
holy  place,  or"  if  he  take  a  cross  fixed  in  the  earth,  lay  justice  shall 
leave  him  in  peace,  by  the  privileges  of  the  Church,  as  if  it  had  not  laid 
hands  on  him. " 

In  England  no  place  could  enjoy  the  full  rights  of  sanctuary  but  by 
royal  grant,  because  the  privilege  of  the  Cross  had  been  abused,  as  men- 
tioned  in   the   chapter    on   "  Boundary   Crosses."       Those 

'  Royal  Grant 

accused  of  high  treason  were  declared  incapable  of  sanctuary  Needed  in 

England. 

by  Acts  26  and  28  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  in  the  twenty-first 
year  of  James  I.  the  privilege  was  abolished.' 

Even  to  animals  was,  in  one  place  at  least,  the  privilege  of  sanctuary 
allowed.  "  Basolus,  born  of  a  noble  race  in  Lemosia,  and  founder  of  the 
Monastery  of  Vierge  in  the  hill  country  of  Reims,  having  ^^j^^i^^n^^^^ 
built  a  cell  in  the  depth  of  the  forest,  sheltered  by  a  stone  Sanctuary. 

cross,  and  where  his  whole  furniture  consisted  of  a  little  lettern,  admirably 
sculptured,  to  bear  the  Holy  Scriptures,  on  which  he  meditated  unceas- 
ingly, was  one  day  disturbed  in  his  devotions  by  a  great  bear,  which  laid 
itself  at   his  feet,  as  if  to  ask  mercy  for  its  life.      Following  the  animal 

*  Walcott,  Sacred  Archtiology^  p.  2S9.  Everyone  will  remember  the  right  of  sanctuary 
enjoyed  by  Alsatia,  White  Friars,  the  last  sanctuary,  as  described  by  Scott  in  the  Fortunes  of 


292  History  of  the  Cross 

came  on  horseback  one  of  the  most  powerful  lords  of  the  neighborhood, 
Attila,  whom  the  mere  glance  of  the  hermit  brought  to  a  standstill,  and 
rendered  motionless.  He  was  a  good  man  at  bottom,"  says  the  legend, 
"  though  a  great  hunter;  he  evidenced  this  by  making  a  gift  to  the  abbot 
of  all  he  possessed  round  the  cell."  Four  centuries  after,  this  tradition 
remained  so  fresh,  that,  by  an  agreement  scrupulously  observed,  the 
game  hunted  in  the  forest  of  Reims  was  always  spared,  both  by  dogs 
and  hunters,  when  it  reached  the  little  wood  over  which  rose  the  cross 
of  S.  Basle.' 

'  Montalembert,  Monks  of  the  ]Vest,  vol.  ii.,  p.  349. 


CHAPTER   XV 

PREACHING   CROSSES 

THE  origin  of  the  preaching  cross  must  be  traced  back  to  the  pro- 
cessional cross  of  the  early  missionaries.      It  was  an  eventful  day 
for  England  when  S.  Augustine  and  his  companions,  A.D. 

Origin. 

597,  appeared  before  Ethelbcrt,  King  of  Kent,  chanting  the 
litany  and  hymns,  and  bearing  aloft  a  silver  image  of  our  Lord  and  a 
crucifi.x  painted  upon  a  board.  Meagre  as  may  have  been  the  pomp  and 
ceremonial  of  the  missionary  and  his  attendant  monks,  the  symbolic 
worship  riveted  the  attention  of  the  pagan  king  and  secured  a  welcome 
for  Christianity  in  his  dominions.  Soon,  to  the  processional  cross  tem- 
porarily set  up,  structures  were  added  "  which  supplied  the  place  of  an 
oratory,  and  around  it  the  Thane  and  his  retainers  frequently  assembled 
to  perform  their  devotions."  ' 

Strictly  speaking,  this  was  not  the  earliest  missionary  meeting  in 
Great  Britain,  for  we  believe  that  S.  Paul  or  his  disciples  first  preached 
the  Gospel  in  "  the  extreme  isles  of  the  West."  '  Nor  was  this  the  first 
time  that  the  Cross  was  known,  for  it  had  been  carved  on  stones  in  Wales 
two  hundred  years  before,  but  it  may  have  been  the  first  exhibition  of 
that  standard  which  England  proudly  boasts,  as  floating  over  a  dominion 
upon  which  the  sun  never  sets. 

Such  also  was  the  custom  of  the  early  Jesuit  missionaries  in  this 
country.  Father  Rasles,  who  labored  among  the  Indians  of  Canada  and 
the  northern  part  of  New  England  in  1689-1723,  describing  cross  Erected  by 
his  visit  to  the  Amalingans,  savs,  "  I  did   not  lose  the  least     J""" '^■=^'°"- 

^  -  aries  in  North 

time,  but  as  soon  as  I  arrived,  I  caused  them  to  plant  the  America. 

Cross,  and  those  who  accompanied  me  raised  as  soon  as  possible  a  chapel 

'  Bede,  Eccles.  Hist.,  b.  i,  c.  25.  ''  S.  Clement,  I  Epistle. 

203 


294  History  of  the  Cross 

which  they  made  of  bark,  in  the  same  way  in  which  they  formed  their 
cabins,  and  within  it  they  erected  an  altar."  ' 

In  England,  the  preaching  cross  was  used  not  only  for  religious  in- 
struction, but  also  for  almost  every  purpose,  political  or  ecclesiastical.     At 
,_,       .      its  foot,   laws  were  promulgated,  and  oaths  were  adminis- 

Uses  of  Preach-  ^  ^ 

ing  Cross.  tercd,  which  were  presumed  to  be  of  special  sanctity;  papal 

bulls  were  solemnly  announced,  and  anathemas  fell  with  crushing  weight ; 
penitents  grovelled  in  sackcloth  and  ashes,  and  recantations  were  uttered, 
with  all  due  pomp  and  ceremony. 

The  most  celebrated  preaching  cross  in  England  was  that  of  S.  Paul. 
It  would  require  a  volume  to  contain  its  history,  yet  so  much  has  hap- 
pened under  its  consecrated  shadow  which  is  interesting  to 

S.  Paul's  Cross. 

everyone  who  speaks  the  English  tongue,  that  a  few  facts 
must  be  summarily  gi\'en.  The  site  was  a  place  of  worship  long  before 
it  was  consecrated  by  the  Cross,  for  the  ruins  of  a  temple  to  Diana  were 
found  near  the  spot,  and  some  relics  of  the  worship  of  that  goddess  were 
preserved  even  as  late  as  the  time  of  Camden,  for  he  remembered  having 
seen  when  a  boy  some  remains  of  the  Tauroplia,  a  festival  of  Diana,  when  a 
stag's  head  fixed  on  a  spear  was  borne,  with  the  accompaniment  of  horns 
and  due  solemnity,  around  the  Cluirch  of  S.  Paul's,  and  a  certain  family 

'  Kip,  Early  Jestdt  Missions  in  Xorth  America,  p.  49.     Whittier  carries  us  back  to  the 
scene  in  his  Afogg  Megone,  part  ii.  : 

"  On  the  brow  of  a  hill,  which  slopes  to  meet 
The  flowing  river  and  bathe  its  feet, — 
The  bare-washed  rock,  and  the  drooping  grass, 
And  the  creeping  vine,  as  the  waters  pass, — 
A  rude  and  unshapely  chapel  stands. 
Built  up  in  that  wild  by  unskilled  hands. 
Yet  the  traveller  knows  it  a  place  of  prayer. 
For  the  holy  sign  of  the  Cross  is  there  : 
And  should  he  chance  at  that  place  to  be. 
Of  a  Sabbath  morn,  or  some  hallowed  day. 
When  prayers  are  made  and  masses  are  said, 
Some  for  the  living  and  some  for  the  dead. 
Well  might  the  traveller  start  to  see 
The  tall,  dark  forms,  that  take  their  way 
From  the  birch  canoe,  on  the  river-shore. 
And  the  forest  paths,  to  that  chapel  door  ; 
And  marvel  to  mark  the  naked  knees 
And  the  dusky  foreheads  bending  there, 
While  in  coarse,  white  vesture,  over  these 
In  lilessing  or  in  prayer, 
Stretching  abroad  his  thin,  pale  hands, 
Like  a  shrouded  ghost,  the  Jesuit  stands." 


PreachiiT'-  Crosses 

o 


295 


by  the  name  of  Baud  were  bound  to  pay  redemption  for  tlie  stag  to  the 
priest,  who  stood  on  the  steps  of  the  choir,  clad  in  sacerdotal  robes  and 
garlands.  But  long  before  the  time  of  the  worthy  chronicler,  the  friars 
of  S.  Martin  had  usurjjed  the  shrine  of  the  goddess  of  the  Ephesians,  and 
had  erected  a  cross  which  appears  to  have  been  used  both  as  Double  use  by 
a  preaching  and  a  market  cross.  The  monks  exacted  their  ""=  Monks, 
toll,  and  dispensed  the  Gospel  from  the  same  place,  Cheapside.  Yet 
their  hand  could  not  liave  been  very  heavy;  for  S.  Paul's  Cross  was  ever 
loved  and  revered  by  Londoners  from  its  first  foinidation  until  long  after 
"  one  stone  had  not  been  left  upon  another."  It  was  their  common 
ground  for  assemblies,  civil  or  religious,  their  Folkc  mote  ;  beggar  or  king 
had  an  equal  right  in  it,  and  it  was  prized  by  the  citizens  accordingly. 

To  show  how  dearly  the  liberty  of  S.  Paul's  Cross  was  held  by  the 
citizens  of  London,  we  refer  to  the  attempts  made,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IL,  by  the  Dean  and  chapter  of  the  church  to  gain  exclusive 
possession  of  the  cross  and  grounds,  but  the  tumult  raised  by  the  Lon- 
doners was  too  great.  The  chapter  was  vanquished,  and  the  citizens 
retained  the  right  not  only  to  have  free  access  to  the  cross,  but  to  the 
great  bell  tower,  in  order  to  toll  the  bell  and  assemble  the  people  for 
discussion. 

The  youths  also  asserted  their  privilege.  The  ground  around  the 
cross  was  their  playground,  where-  ^ 


on  mimic  wars  of  the  English  and 
French  were  acted,  but  with  such 
zeal,  that  on  the  feast  of  S.  Am- 
brose, A.D.  1400,  not  only  many 
were  wounded,  but  several  killed. 
S.  Paul's  Cross  preceded  by  a 
short  time  the  church,  which  was 
probably  built  by  King    ^^     ,_    ,„ 

^  •'  y  t>       Church  of  S. 

Ethelbert  in  610.      It  is  Paurs. 

not  known  how  long  this  edifice 
lasted.     The  old  Cathedral  of  S. 
Paul,  which  was  burned  in  the  Great  Fire,  was  begun  in  1083.      Only  inci- 
dentally in  history  do  we  find  mention  made  of   the  old 
cross.     About  the  thirteenth  century,  proclamations  were 
made  from  the  foot  of  the  cross,  civic  meetings  were  held,  and  the  Lord 


S.  IViul's  Pulpit  Cross. 
From   Holland's  Cruciana. 


296  History  of  the  Cross 

Mayor  impeached,  etc.  Henry  III.,  cir.  1259,  ordered  a  general  assem- 
bly to  be  held  at  S.  PauTs  Cross,  where  he  in  person  commanded  the 
Lord  Mayor  to  swear  in  fealty,  in  the  presence  of  the  Aldermen,  every 
person  of  twelve  years  old  and  upward.  In  A.D.  1260,  or  1262,  in  the 
presence  of  a  splendid  gathering  of  the  representatives  of  both  Church 
and  State,  the  same  king  caused  the  bull  of  Pope  Urban  IV.  to  be  read, 
absolving  him  from  the  sin  of  perjury  in  breaking  the  oath  \\hich  he  had 
taken  before  the  "  Mad  "  Parliament  in  1238,  to  rule  onl_\-  under  the 
guidance  of  a  great  council.  In  short,  everything  was  then  jiromulgated 
from  the  cross.  It  seems  curious  in  these  days  to  read  the  various  mat- 
ters thus  published:  f.i:  gr.,  in  1299,  Ralph  Baldoe,  Dean  of  S.  Paul's, 
from  the  cross,  cursed  all  those  who  had  searched  for  hidden  hoards  of 
gold  in  fields  and  caves  about  the  Church  of  S.  Martin.' 

Again,  the  metropolitan  Bishop  of  Northbur_\-  bequeathed  one  hun- 
dred marks  to  be  lent  to  laymen  on  pledge,  and  "  directed  that  if  the 
,,        ,         ,  .  pledge  was  not  redeemed  within  a  vear,  the  preacher  at  S. 

Money  Loaned  at  I  o  .  r 

s.  Paurs  Cross.  I'aui's  Cross  was  to  give  notice  that  it  would  be  sold  within 
the  ensuing  fortnight."  Hereby  we  learn  that  what  was  probabl}-  the 
primary  purpose  of  the  cross,  public  worship,  exhortation,  and  preach- 
ing, was  at  that  time  kept  up. 

S.  Paul's  Cross  was  overthrown  by  an  earthquake  in  1382,  and  Wil- 
liam Courtney,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a  prelate  powerful  enough  to 
dare  to   cjuarrel   with   old   John   of  Gaunt.   "  time-honored 

Overthrown  by 

an  Earthquake.     Laucastcr,"   collectcd  moncvfor  its  re-erection.      But  this 
Act  of  Bishop      purpose  was  not  carried  into  effect  until  the  time  of  Thomas 
ourtney.  Kcmp,  Bishop  of  London,  in  1449.      Hence,  Dean  Nowell, 

in  a  sermon  preached  at  the  cross,  accused  the  Archbishop  of  misappro- 
priating the  funds  to  his  own  use  ;  perhaps  a  foul  slander, — but  at  all 
events,  William  Courtney  was  a  cool  hand,  as  may  be  shown  in  another 
instance.  When  Gregory  XL,  being  enraged  at  the  Florentines  because 
they  would  not  acknowledge  his  temporal  power,  issued  a  bull  exempt- 
ing all  persons  from  paying  ilebts  due  to  merchants  of  Morence,  Courtney 
pidilished  the  bull  at  .S.  Paul's  Cross,  approving  it.  The  Mayor  of  Lon- 
don forthwith  imprisoned  the  Florentine  merchants  who  were  in  that 
city.  Edward  III.  not  only  freed  them,  but  commanded  the  .\rchbishop 
to  acknowledge  his  fault  for  presuming  to  publish  a  papal  bull  without 

'  I'cnnant,  Loudon,  p.  514. 


Preachin<>'  Crosses 


297 


the  royal  authority.  Hy  sj)ccial  favor,  only  allowed  in  rare  cases,  an 
attorney  appeared  for  the  prelate,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  audience, 
composed  of  foreit,ni  merchants,  British  nobles,  and  the  common  peo])le, 
coolly  denied  in  the  most  barefaced  manner  that  the  Archbishop  had 
over  uttered  a  word  that  was  charged  to  him,  addint,',  "  I  am  astonished 


■!\-. 


A)iffl|jl|r]Jlili'^'M,-i 
i  >  ^ 

.     hi    a  IP  *i 


»e^ii.'^.^  ta<    J-  -    I 


S.  Paul's  Cross.     From  an  Old  Trint. 

that  you  who  hear  so  many  sermons  here  should  not  better  understand 
what  is  said  to  you."  '     • 

But  to  turn  to  more  serious  matters.  Passing  over  many  curious  in- 
cidents, such  as  the  anathematizing  at  the  cross  of  Sir  John  Oldcastle  for 
maintaining  that  Richard  II.  was  not  dead,  after  Henry  had 

°  -  Sir  John  Oldcastle 

publicly  exposed  his  corpse,   etc.,   we  note  that  the  great     Anathematized 

at  the  Cross. 

King-Maker, "  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  in  person  stood  upon 
the  steps  of  S.  Paul's  Cross,  and  proclaimed  that   Edward  was  not  the 
legitimate  son  of  Henry  VI.     Afterwards,  Warwick's  chaplain,  Dr.  God- 
dard,  preached  from  the  cross  on  the  Sunday  after  Michaelmas,  1470, 

'  Doran,  Saints  an  J  Sinners,  vol.  i.,  p.  56. 


298  History  of  the  Cross 

and  so  did  he  move  the  audience  that  not  less  than  six  thousand  soldiers, 
who  had  been  levied  for  King  Edward,  transferred  their  allegiance  to 
Henry  and  V/arwick. 

But  the  cross  witnessed  a  simple  scene  of  far  more  weight  than  pup- 
pet kings  and  empires  could  present.      In  1474,  printing  was  introduced 
into  England  by  William  Caxton  ;  and  the  Vicar  of  Crovdon, 

Printing 

Denounced  at       at  the  cross,  dcnounccd  the  new-fangled  art,  saying,   "  We 

the  Cross.  .       .  .       .  .  . .  ,         ^  ,, 

must  root  out  printmg,  or  prmtnig  will  root  out  us.  All 

honor  to  the  true  prophet,  whose  \-aticinations  began  to  be  fulfilled  \\hen, 
in  August,  1539,  the  Bishop  of  London  burned  all  the  copies  that  could 
-.     .  ,  .  T    ,     be  bought  of  Tvndale's  New  Testament,  fined  their  possess- 

Tyndale  s  Testa-  &  -  »  x^ 

ment  Burned.  Q^g  j^|i  J  compelled  them  to  ridc  upon  their  horses,  facing 
their  tails,  amid  the  hooting  of  the  rabble.  The  purchasing  of  the  New 
Testament  was  a  blessing  to  Tyndale,  for  thus  he  was  provided  with 
funds  to  publish  a  second  and  more  correct  edition.  Sir  Thomas  More 
asked  him  how  he  had  obtained  means  to  subsist  while  abroad.  With 
quiet  humor  he  answered,  that  "  the  Bishop  of  London  had  been  his 
chief  supporter." 

A  few  years  later,  Coverdale,  from  the  cross,  defended  Cranmer's 
Bible.  But  we  have  anticipated  for  the  sake  of  the  connection  of  the 
_  ,  „.. ,     subject.      To  resume  chronologically  we  must  go  back  to  a 

Cranmer  s  Bible  J  &  -'  fc. 

Defended.  g^J  SCeUC. 

In    1483,    Jane   Shore   began   her  penance  at   S.    Paul's  Cross.      Sir 

Thomas    More,    in    his    defence  of    this    poor   Magdalen,   declares    that 

Richard  III.'s  persecution  of  her  arose  from  avarice.     After 

Jane  Shore.  .    .  ,,    ,  .  .  <i      ,  ,  . 

seizmg  all  her  possessions,  amounting  to  above  the  value 
of  two  or  three  thousand  marks,"  he  sent  her  to  prison,  on  the  charge  of 
bewitching  him;  when  unable  to  sustain  that,  "  then  he  la_\-d  heinously 
to  her  charge  the  thing  herself  could  not  den\-.  that  al  the  world  ^\■ist 
was  true  "  ;  as  More  satirically  remarks.  "  as  a  goodly  continent  prince, 
clene  and  faultless  of  himself,  sent  out  of  heaven  into  this  vicious  world 
for  the  amendment  of  men's  maners,  he  caused  the  Bishop  of  London  to 
put  her  to  open  penance,  going  before  the  Crosse  in  procession  u]5on  a 
Sunday  with  a  taper  in  her  hand.  In  wliich  she  went  in  countenance 
and  pace  demure,  so  womanly;  and  albeit  she  was  out  of  al  array  save 
her  kyrtle  only  yet  went  she  so  fair  and  lovely  namelye,  while  the  won- 

'  Lewis,  //ist.  of  Eng.,  Translation,  p.  55,  quoted  in  Hone's  Mysteries,  p.  22S,  note. 


joo  History  of  the  Cross 

dering  of  the  people  caste  a  comly  red  in  her  chekes  (of  which  she  before 
had  most  misse),  that  her  great  shame  wan  her  much  praise  among  those 
that  were  more  amorous  of  her  body,  than  curious  of  her  soule.  And 
many  good  folke  also,  that  hated  her  living,  and  glad  wer  to  se  sin  cor- 
reted,  yet  pitted  thei  more  her  penance  than  rejoiced  therein,  when 
thei  considered  that  the  protector  procured  it  more  of  a  corrupt  intent 
than  any  virtuous  affecion."  The  testimony  of  the  Lord  Chancellor  as 
to  ]\Iistress  Shore's  charity  and  kindness  of  heart  is  emphatic.  God 
grant  that  it  may  be  of  weight  at  the  Last  Da}-!  "  Whose  power  to  sai 
the  trouth,  (for  sinne  it  were  to  belie  the  de\'il),  she  never  abused  to  any 
man's  hurt,  but  to  many  a  man's  comfort  and  relief  .  .  .  for  at  this 
daye  she  beggeth  of  many  living  that  had  begged  if  she  had  not  bene." 
Truly  the  old  ballad  sings: 

"  But  yet  a  gentle  mind  I  bore 
To  help  the  people  that  were  poore  ; 
I  still  redrest  the  orphan's  crye. 
And  saved  their  lives  condemned  to  dye. 

"  I  still  had  ruth  on  widowes  tears, 
I  succour'd  babes  of  tender  veares  ; 
And  never  looked  for  other  gaine 
But  love  and  thanks  for  all  my  paine." 

"  Her  doings  were  not  much  lesse,  albeit  thei  be  muche  lesse  remem- 
bered because  thei  were  not  so  evil.  For  men  use,  if  they  have  an  e\-il 
turne,  to  write  it  in  marble;  and  who  so  doeth  us  a  good  turne,  we 
write  it  in  duste."'  Probably  to  these  words  even  Shakespeare  was 
indebted  when  he  wrote,  "  Men's  evil  manners  Ii\'e  in  brass,  their  \'irtues 
we  write  in  water."  "  And  again  the  passage  may  have  floated  through 
his  mind  when  he  writes,  "  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them,  the 
good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones." 

This  same  year  witnessed  another  gathering  at  the  cross,  con\-cned  by 

Richard,  when   he  emplo\-ed    Doctors   Shaw  and   Pinke — "  both,"   says 

Stow,  "  great  preachers  of  more  learning  tlian  \'irtue  " — to 

Claims  of  Richard 

III.  Preached  at    uphold  his  pretensious  to  the  throiiL-.      Not  only  did  Shaw 

(ungratifiil  wretch,  having  been  chaplain  and  confessor  to 

Ed',\anl  1\'.)  declare  the  children  of  the  former  king  illegitimate,  on  the 

'  Percy's  Rehqucs.  "Jane  Shore."     -Sir  Thos.  More's  Works,  ed.  1S57,  pp.  56,  57. 
'  Henry  VIII.,  .act  iv.,  sc.  ii.  ;   Julius  Grsar,  act  iii.,  so.  2. 


Preaching  Crosses  301 

pretence  that  Edward's  marriage  with  their  mother  was  illegal,  as  a  pre- 
contract had  existed  between  the  King  and  Elizabeth  Lucy,  but  over- 
zealously  going  still  further  he  maintained  that  Edward  IV.  and 
Clarence,  the  elder  brothers  of  Richard,  were  also  bastards,  but  lliat 
Richard's  likeness  to  his  father,  the  Duke  of  York,  proved  his  lineage. 
According  to  one  tradition,  Richard,  at  this  point  of  the  sermon,  was  to 
have  entered  the  pulpit,  or  rather  the  little  room  behind  the  preacher, 
with  the  Doctor,  so  that  all  might  read  his  likeness,  but  he  failed  to 
appear.  Another  tradition  makes  Richard  present  during  the  whole 
time  that  his  mother's  fair  fame  was  thus  belied.  Shaw's  eloquence  fell 
on  unresponsive  ears — in  shame  he  retired,  and,  it  is  said,  died  soon  after 
of  mortification.' 

During  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  an  act  was  passed  decreeing  death 
to  all  murderers  and  robbers.  The  Church  party,  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
opposed  it,  but  were  conciliated  by  the  exception  of  priests 

Benefit  of  Clergy. 

and  deacons  from  the  penalty.  Yet  the  act  was  bene- 
ficial, inasmuch  as  many  offenders  were  punished  who  else  would  have 
escaped  on  the  plea  of  "benefit  of  clergy."'  The  Abbot  of  Win- 
chester preached  at  S.  Paul's  Cross,  as  the  representative  of  the  Old 
Churchmen,  and  protested  that  the  act  was  contrary  to  the  liberties 
of  the  Church  and  the  law  of  God.  Dr.  Hook,  in  his  Life  of  Arch- 
bishop of  Warham,  remarks,  "  The  act  only  so  far  invaded  the  liberties 
of  the  Church,  as  to  prevent  the  Church  from  extending  its  protection 
to  persons  guilty  of  '  certain  offences,'  not  because  they  were  in  Holy 
Orders,  but  because,  being  able  to  read,  they  were  qualified  for  Holy 
Orders." 

The  cross  was  put  to  a  more  agreeable  use  in  1501,  when  the  procla- 
mation of  marriage  between  James  IV.  of  Scotland  and  Margaret, 
daughter  of  Henry  VII.,  was  proclaimed   from  it,  but   this  was  only  a 

'  Doran,  Suiii/s  and  Sitnwrs. 

■  In  England  the  exemption  of  the  clergy  from  civil  punishment  w.nb  based  on  the  text, 
"  Touch  not  mine  anointed,  and  do  my  prophets  no  harm"  (i  Chron.  xvi.,  22).  The  privilege 
in  time  was  perverted  to  comprehend,  not  only  all  ordained  persons,  but  all  who,  being  able  to 
read  and  write,  were  capable  of  entering  into  Holy  Orders.  Felons  learned  to  spell  out  the 
trial  verse  of  those  who  claimed  the  "benefit  of  clergy,"  "  Have  mercy  upon  me,  O  God,  ac- 
cording to  thy  loving  kindness  ;  according  unto  the  multitude  of  thy  tender  mercies  blot  out  my 
transgressions"  (Ps.  li.,  i).  This  was  called  the  "  neck  verse,"  and  if  the  convict  could  read  it, 
the  ordinary  of  Newgate  said  Lc-git  tit  clericiis,  and  the  criminal  saved  his  neck,  being  only 
burnt  in  the  hand  and  set  at  liberty.  The  law  concerning  the  "  benefit  of  clergy  "  was  repealed 
in  the  reign  of  George  IV. 


302  History  of  the  Cross 

passing  gleam   of   brightness.      Henry  VIII.  found  a  vent  for  his  tur- 
bulence   at    S.    Paul's,    for    he    commanded    the    preachers 

Marriage  of 

James  IV.  and      from    Sunday    to    Sunday    to    preach    against    the   Pope's 

Margaret 

Proclaimed.  authority,  and  to  dispute  his  claims  as  universal  Bishop, 
Authority  of        and  thus,  says  Pennant,  "    his  Holiness'  bulls  were  fairly 

Pope  Denied.  ,      .        ,  -  ,   .      .   .  ,  ,         ,   .  ,  , , 

baited  out  oi  his  kingdom  by  his  own  dogs. 
On  February  24,   1588,  Bishop  Hilsey  of  Rochester  exposed  at  the 
cross  the  celebrated  "  Rood  of  Grace  "   of  Boxley.'     This  image  of  the 
u     ^   t^    A   r  Madonna  had  been  made  by  an  English  soldier,  during  his 

Fraud  of  Rood  of  y  o  '  fa 

Boxley  Exposed,  captivity  ill  Fi'ance,  and  by  its  automatical  movements  of 
winking  and  smiling  had  been  a  fund  of  treasure  to  its  possessors.  Its 
mechanism  being  exhibited,  it  was  burnt.  Doubtless  a  needful  sacrifice, 
yet,  still,  every  lover  of  mechanism  regrets  the  destruction  of  an  autom- 
aton as  he  would  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  the  celebrated  Vaucanson 
three  hundred  years  later. 

Before  the  curtain  drops  which  hides  the  death-bed  of  Henry  VIII. 
from  the  world,  we  must  note  his  last  act ;  for  when  in  his  death  throes, 
struck  with  remorse,  the  tyrant  ordered  the  Church  of  the  Grey  Friars, 
which  he  had  desecrated  into  a  storehouse,  to  be  fitted  for  Divine  service 
fiir  the  poor.  And  this  feeble  act  of  retribution  was  declared  from  S. 
Paul's  Cross. 

During  the  sixteenth  century  many  persons  appeared  in  penance  at 
the  cross.  Those  who  in  former  and  less  merciful  days  would  have  been 
„       ...         .  burnt,   were  now  required   only  to   appear  barefooted  and 

Recantation  and  i  j  i  i 

Penance.  bareheaded  and  compelled   to  make  public  recantation   of 

their  religious  opinions.  The  Protestants  denied  their  faith  under  Mary, 
and  the  Romanists  under  Elizabeth.  The  former  were  obliged  to  carry 
a  fagot  as  a  token  of  their  being  brands  plucked  from  the  burning,  but 
the  latter  were  exempt  from  this  suggestive  symbol.  As  a  punishment 
for  sacrilegious  impiety  we  find  that,  in  1537,  one  Sir  Thomas  Newman, 
priest,  was  ordered  to  bear  a  fagot  for  celebrating  mass  with  ale.  An- 
other criminal,  one  Dolwyn,  alias  Dynk,  had  published  a  book  declaring 
that  pastors  ought  to  have  meat  and  drink,  but  no  money.  Here, 
too,  was  tlie  ludicrous  spectacle,  on  the  eighth  of  March,  1555,  of  a 
man  who  ha\'ing,  in  Lent,  brought  two  pigs  ready  dressed  for  sale,  was 
compelletl   to   stand   during   the  sermon,  with   one  pig  upon    his  head. 

'  Burnet,  I/isl.  of  Reformation,  part  iv.,  book  iii. 


Preachinof  Crosses 


303 


The  last  person  recorded  as  performing  penance  was  a  seminary  priest 
in   1593. 


Preaching  at  S.  Paul's  Cross.     From  an  Old  Print. 

It  would  take  too  long  to  catalogue  even  the  noted  preachers  at  the 
cross;  who  appeared,  .sometimes  as  political  advocates  for  the 

'  Preachers  at 

claims  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  or  Mary  Tudor,  at  others,  simply  the  cross. 


304 


History  of  the  Cross 


as  earnest  watchmen  of  tlie  hour.      In  the  record  of  the  latter  we  find 
the  names  of  Ridley,  Latimer,  Jewell.  Donne,  and  other  lights  of  less 


Kerciins  111  >.    I'aul  s.       I'imih  a   I'hi  il.  .j^i  :i|iji. 

brilliancy.      Not  without  care  were  men  selected  to  fill  the  popular  sensa- 
tional pulpit  of  that  day.     The  qualification  desired  may  be  judged  from 


Preaching  Crosses 


305 


a  letter  from  Ridley  to  Parker.  "  Sir,  I  pray  you  refuse  not  to  take  a 
day  at  the  Cross.  1  may  have,  if  I  would  call  without  any  choice,  enow. 
But  in  some,  alas  I  desire  more  learning,  in  some,  a  better  judgment,  in 
some,  more  virtue  and  godly  conversation,  and  some,  more  soberness 
and  discretion.  And  he  in  whom  all  these  do  meet,  shall  not  do  well 
to  refuse,  in  my  judgment,  to  serve  God  in  that  place."  Nor  was  this 
post  of  honor  wholly  without  the  "  nettle  danger."  When  Bonner, 
in  1553,  ventured  to  censure  Edward  VI.,  stones  were  flung  against  the 
preacher,  and  men  with  drawn  daggers  ruslied  to  assault  liim,  but  a 
timely  flight  into  the  cathedral  saved  him.  The  dagger  appears  again  at 
the  cross,  once  when  Bonner's  chaplain.  Bourn,  vexed  his  audience  by 
his  preaching,  one  hurled  a  dagger  at  him  which  stuck  quivering  in  a 
post  by  his  side.  The  preachers  of 
Mary  Tudor  found  equally  discourteous 
treatment.  Two  hundred  halberdiers 
enforced  the  pious  and  attentive  hear- 
ing of  Dr.  Watson's  sermon,  yet  a  bul- 
let whistled  in  unpleasant  proximity  to 
Dr.  Pendleton's  ear,  giving  an  emphatic 
objection  to  his  smooth  words.  Hence-, 
forth  the  carrying  of  guns  or  daggers 
was  forbidden  to  the  peaceful  congre- 
gation of  the  cross. 

As  Mary's  most  powerful  preachers     "X 
had  thundered  against    Protestantism, 
so    on    the    accession    of  „        „i-    k  .k. 

Queen  Elizabeth  s 

Queen  Elizabeth,  counter  u=<=  of  the  cross, 
fulminations  were  liurled  by  the  Queen's 
Almoner,  Dr.  Bill,  followed  by  Grindal, 
Horn,  Jewell,  Sandys,  and  others.  The 
same  sovereign  caused  the  memory  of 


Pulpit  Cross  at  Iron-Acton,  Gloucester. 


her  once-beloved  Essex  to  be  blackened 

in  a  sermon  at  the  Cross ;  some  sparks 

of  her  indignation  not  being  quenched  by  his  blood.      The  pul]>it  was 

more  worthily  employed   in    158S,   when  thanks  were  returned   for  the 

deliverance  of  Great   Britain  from  the  attack  of  the  Invincible  Armada 

of  Philip  II.     Stow  likewise  relates  the  account  of  a  splendid  memorial 


Preach ini;'  Crosses  307 

gotten  up  No\'enil)LT  17,  1595,  as  a  diiy  of  triiiinph  for  her  Majesty's  long 
and  prosperous  leign. 

An  example  of  Queen  Elizabetli's  wiliiiess  is  shown  in  an  occurrence 
of  the  following  \-ear.  Taking  advantage  of  the  excitement  aroused 
(.luring  a  sensational  sermon  tlelivered  hc'fore  the  Lord  Mayor  and  alder- 
men, she  sent  a  message  recpiiring  a  thousand  men  to  be  lex'ied  to  assist 
the  I'rench  in  raising  the  siege  of  Calais,  then  besieged  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  lo\'al  subjects  instantly  quitted  their  devotions,  and  by  eight 
o'clock  that  evening  the  men  were  enrolled.  Their  errand  was  boot- 
less, for  on  reaching  Dover  they  received  news  rif  the  capture  of  Calais. 

J5ut  the  glory  of  the  old  cross  was  departing.  James  I.  listened  to  a 
sermon  from  this  pulpit  in  1620.  Doubtless  the  sermon  was  acceptable, 
but  doubtless  still  more  so  was  the  purse  of  irold  with  which 

^  ^  James  I.  at  the 

he  was  presented  while  "  organs,   cornets,   and  sackbuts  "  Cross, 

sounded,  and  John  King,  Bishop  of  London,  appealed  to  the  congrega- 
tion for  money  to  repair  S.  Paul's.  Almost  the  last  time  that  we  hear 
of  S.  Paul's  Cross  was  when  Charles  L  attended  divine  service  and  ser- 
mon on  the  30th  of  May,  1630.  The  cross  was  demolished 
in  1643,  by  order  of  the  Parliament,  by  the  fanatical  Lsaac 
Pennington,  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  who  died  in  the  Tower  a  convicted 
regicide.      May  the  malison  of  all  archaeologists  rest  upon  him. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

MARKET   CROSSES 

MARKET  crosses,  which  once  were  common  throughout  Europe, 
naturally  originated  from  the  customs  of  early  times.  The 
Markets  Con-  privilege  of  holding  markets  was  formerly  granted  to  the 
''°"""^'^°"'''- monasteries,  and  the  cross  was  erected,  not  only  as  a  sign 
of  their  jurisdiction  and  power  to  receive  tolls,  but  also  as  a  pulpit  for 
occasional  religious  exhortation.  Again,  in  former  times,  markets  were 
held  on  Sundavs  and  on  festivals,  for  the  convenience  of 

Markets  Held  on 

Sundays  and        dealers    who    Were    assembled     for    worship.      Hence    the 

Holy-days. 

churchyard  ^\•as  often  selected  for  this  business.  In  the 
time  of  Edward  I.  an  Act  of  Parliament  was  passed  (in  1285)  prohibiting 
the  holding  of  markets  and  fairs  in  churchyards,  and  in  1677,  in  the  time 
of  Charles  II.,  the  practice  of  holding  the  fairs  on  Sundays  was  forbid- 
den.' Undoubtedly,  also,  our  forefathers,  whose  simple  ideas  of  Sunday 
and  religion  were  not  left  within  the  walls  of  the  church  when  they 
quitted  it,  meant  to  remind  men  of  their  Crucified  Example,  who  had 
recognized  and  sanctified  the  necessary^  business  of  life,  not  only  b\- 
actually  laboring  with  his  own  hands,  but  also  by  paying  legal  tribute, 
and  directing  the  toil  of  his  followers.  The  influence  of  the  Cross  was 
acknowledged  by  the  traders,  for  they  were  in  the  habit  of  appealing  by 
oath  to  that  sacred  image,  under  whose  shadow  they  stood,  that  their 
goods  were  honestly  come  by,  and  perfect.'' 

At  first,  these  market  crosses  were  only  single  cruciform  shafts, 
elevated  on  steps  similar  to  those  in  church\-ards,  but  after  a  while  they 
became  more  li)ft\-,  and  were  decorated  with  ])innacles,  niches,  etc.  ;  and 

'  Essay  of  John  Britton,  F.S.  A.,  Proceedings  of  the  Archaological  Society,  1849,  \i.  304. 
'  I.edwich,  Antiquities  of  Ireland,  p.  446. 

30S 


Market  Crosses 


309 


still  later,  projections  or  arches  were  erected  to  shelter  the  people  from 
the  weather.  One  of  the  most  elegant  antl  appropriate  of  these  struct- 
ures was  the  cross  at  Coventry,  Warwickshire.      It  was  built 

r         u  ^  lue-W'ir  r    Coventry  Cross. 

m  consequence  of  a  becjuest  made  by  Sir  \V  ilham,  son  01 

Thomas  HoUis,  sometime  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  and   was  erected  on 

the  site  of  an  ancient  cross  which  gave  way  to  its 

more  splendid  successor.      The    foundation    was 

laid  by  the  Mayor  in  1541,  and  three  years  were 

occupied  in  its  completion. 

By  a  special  act  of  the  town  council  it  was 
guarded  from  defacement  and  injury;  and  the 
people  were  forbidden  "  at  any  time  to  sweepe 
the  pavyments  there,  excepte  they  immediately 
before  they  sweepe,  do  caste  and  sprynklc  water 
upon  the  saide  pavyments  upon  payne  to  forfaite 
for  evy  defaulte  iij  s.  iiij,  d."  ' 

In  16&9,  it  was  repaired  at  an  expense  of 
£2~(b  2s.  \d.  Some  idea  of  its  magnificence  may 
be  formed  from  the  fact  that  15,403  books  of  gold 
leaf  were  used  in  the  gilding,  at  an  expense  of 
;^68  i^s.  This  amount  does  not  appear  to  be  in- 
cluded in  that  before  mentioned.  This  was  one 
of  the  last  efforts  of  expiring  zeal  for  art  and  re- 
ligion in  the  history  of  the  Cross  when  sanctifying 
the  daily  work  in  England,  for  it  seems  that  no 
further  repairs  were  made,  and  in  1771,  having 
gradually  mouldered  and  disintegrated  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  weather,  it  was  removed.  It  was  hex-  ' 
agonal  in  shape,  elevated  on  foLir  steps,  and  was  Gloucester  High  Cross, 
fifty-seven    feet    in   height,    by    forty-two  in    cir-     From  Pooley's  f/,/ Owj« 


cumfcrence.      It   was    divided    into    four   stories. 


0/  Gloucestershire. 


each  richly  decorated  with  statues,  bas-reliefs,  heraldic  ornaments,  etc. 


'  The  will  is  dated  25  December,  33,  Henry  VI 11.  The  clause  referring  to  the  matter  runs 
thus :  ••  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  the  Lord  Mayor  and  Aldermen  of  the  city  of  Coventre,  and  to 
the  commons  of  the  same  CC.  £  sterling  to  the  intent  and  purpose  hereafter  ensuing,  that  is  to 
say,  to  make  a  new  cross  within  the  said  city,  etc.."  but  differing  from  most  men,  who  are  char- 
itable  with  their  money  only  when  it  belongs  not  to  them,  /.  <•.,  after  they  are  dead,  it  appears 
that  the  worthy  knight  had  already  advanced  ^fgo  for  the  purpose. 


Market  Cross  at  Cheddar. 
From  Britton's  Arc/iitirtiiial  Antiqidties. 


310 


Market  Crosses 


,1 1 


.  Gloucester  Cross. 


Among  the  latter  the  rose  aiul  crown,  jlcur-dc-lis,  unicorn,  and  muzzled 
bear  were  prominent.' 

The  cross  at  Gloucester  is  supposed  to  ha\-e  been  built  in  the  time  of 
Richard   III.,  whose  statue  occupied  a  niche  in  the  second 
stage.      The  building  was  octagonal,  tliiity-four  and  a  half 
feet  high,  and  was  taken  down  in  1749.° 

The  cross  at  Cheddar, 
Somersetshire,  s  h  o  w  s 
the  original  structure  of 
the  market  cross,  at  first 
a  simple  shaft,  raised  on 
steps  with 

Cheddar  Cross, 

lateral 

piers,  and  a  roof  erected 
at  a  later  period.  Henry 
III.  granted  to  Bishop 
Jocelin  a  charter  for  a 
weekly  market,  which 
continued  to  be  held 
there  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  cen- 
tury.' Britton  describes 
likewise  the  somewhat 
similar  cross  at  Malmes- 
bury,Wiltshire,built  be- 
fore the  time  of  Henry 
VHL,  and  that  in  Chi- 
chester, Sussex,  erected 
by  Bishop  Story  near 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  worthy 
prelate  left  an  ample 
estate  to  keep  his  prac- 
tical monument  in  re- 
pair. The  clock  is  a 
later  addition,  beintrthe 


Cross  at  Chichester,  Sussex. 
From  Britton's  A  re  hitcctural  Antiquities. 


Britton,  Architectural  Antiquities,  vol.  i.,  pp.  74-76. 


■'  IbiJ.. 


p.  7t 


^Il>id.,  p.  78. 


;i2 


History  of  the  Cross 


gift  of  Dame  Elizabeth  Farrington  in  1724,"  as  an  hourly  memento  of 
her  good-will." 

In  some  places,  as  at  Winchester,  these  crosses  were  called  "  Butter 
Crosses."  There  is  still  a  fine  stone  cross  and  fountain  at  Winchester 
on  the  site  formerly  occupied  by  the  market  cross  during  the  plague,  just 

without  the  original  walls,  to  which 
the  surrounding  countrj^men  brought 
their  produce  in  the  early  morning 
for  sale,  and  returned  at  night  to 
collect  their  money  from  the  running 
basin,  where  it  had  been  left  by  the 
purchasers  to  avoid  the  risk  of  spread- 
ing the  contagion. 

Sir  Walter  Scott  has  thrown   his 
halo  of  witching  glamourie  around  the 
Mercat   Cross  of   Edin- 
burgh : 


Cross  in  Edin- 
burgh. 


Winchester  Butter  Cross. 


Dun-Edin's  Cross,  a  pillared  stone, 
Rose  on  a  turret  octagon 

(But  now  is  razed  that  monument, 

Whence  royal  edict  rang, 
And   voice  of  Scotland's  law  was 
sent 
In  glorious  trumpet-clang. 
O  I  be  his  tomb  as  lead  to  lead, 
U])on  its  dull  destroyer's  head — 
A  minstrel's  malison  is  said.)  "  ' 


In  his  note  to  the  above,  the  poet  says:  "  The  Cross  of  Edinburgh 
was  an  ancient  and  curious  structure.  The  lower  part  was  an  octagonal 
tower,  sixteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  about  fifteen  feet  high.  At  each 
angle  there  was  a  pillar,  and  between  them  an  arch  of  Grecian  shape. 
Above  these  was  a  projecting  battlement,  with  a  turret  at  each  corner, 
and  medallions,  of  rude  but  curious  workmanship,  between  them. 
Above  this  rose  the  proper  cross,  a  column  of  one  stone,  upwards  of 
twenty  feet  high,  surmounted  with  a  unicorn.  This  pillar  is  preserved 
in  the  grounds  of  the  property  of  Drum,  near  Edinburgh.     The  magis- 


'  Alarmioii,  canto  v.,  xxv. 


Market  Crosses 


;i3 


trates  of  Edinburgh,  in  1756,  witii  consent  of  the  Lords  of  Session  {proli 
pudor)  destroyed  this  curious  monument,  under  a  wanton  pretext  that  it 
encumbered  the  street;  while,  on  the  one  hand,  they  left  an  ugly  mass 
called  the  Luckenbooths,  and  on  the  other,  an  awkward,  long,  and  low 
guard-house,  which  were 
fifty  times  more  of  an  en- 
cumbrance than  the  vener- 
able antl  inoffensive  cross." 

P^rom  the  tower  of  the 
cross,  so  long  as  it  remained, 
the  heralds  published  the 
Acts  of  Parliament ;  and  its 
site,  marked  by  radii,  di- 
verging from  a  stone  centre, 
in  the  High  Street,  is  still 
the  place  where  "  procla- 
mations are  made,"  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  custom 
already  alluded  to. 

Happily  the  heavy  mal- 
ison of  the  poet,  we  trust, 
has  now  been  removed  b)- 
the  benison  of  his  towns- 
men on  the  patriotic  re-  -—"h^S^S. 
storer  of  Dun-Edin's  Cross. 
The  Hon.  William  E.  Glad-  ,,      "7a,~T  J,-  i..   f  ^  •    ,qb, 

Mercat  (Market)  Cross  as  Restored  in  1005. 
stone,       the        distinguished  Yxoxa  hxno\A'%  History  of  the  Cross  of  Edinburgh. 

representative  for  Midlothian,  offered  to  rebuild  the  Mercat  Cross  at  his 
own  charges,  in  1885,  and  the  Corporation  of  Edinburgh  accepted  the 
generous  proposition,  and  assigned  a  spot  at  the  east  end  of  St.  Giles's 
Church,  near  the  original  site.  The  turreted  octagon  was  constructed 
after  a  carefully  prepared  plan  of  the  cross  of  1436;  the  old  stone  pillar, 
strengthened  by  a  bar  of  bronze  through  the  centre,  was  re-erected  on 
its  summit.  The  old  medallions,  which,  in  1814,  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott  and  were  inserted  in  an  ornamental  garden  wall  at 
Abbotsford,  were  reproduced,  bearing  heraldic  devices  of  the  arms  of 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Scotland,  England,  and  Ireland,  of  the  City  of 


314  History  of  the  Cross 

Edinburgh,  of  the  Burgh  of  Canongate,  of  the  Town  of  Leith.  and  of 
the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

Originally  founded,  probably,  by  some  Celtic  missionary,  who  set  up, 
according  to  custom,  a  cross  between  the  primitive  church  and  the  well, 
still  known  as  the  "  Cross  Well  "';  rebuilt  by  "  Saint  Margaret,"  Queen 
of  Malcolm  Canmore,  when  she  resided  in  the  Castle,  and  was  noted  for 
her  devotion  to  the  erection  of  crosses;  alluded  to  later  in  the  laws  of 
William  the  Lion,  1 175,  as  the  "  Mercat  Croce  of  burghis,"  at  which  "  it 
is  commandit  by  the  King  that  merchandises  salbe  presentit,"  it  is 
rightly  referred  to  by  Calderwood  as  having  stood  there  "  past  the 
memory  of  man."  And  so  many  are  the  interesting  associations  that 
crowd  around  this  ancient  monument,  that  its  latest  historian  '  has  said 
that  fully  to  write  the  history  of  the  "  Mercat  Cross  "  would  be  to  write 
at  once  the  history  of  Edinburgh  and  of  Scotland;  and  to  trace  the 
influence  of  events  enacted  here  would  involve  \\riting  the  history  of  all 
the  great  political  and  religious  movements  which  have  shaped  the  des- 
tinies of  the  Empire.  Among  a  people  ever  free,  and  always  jealous  of 
an\-thing  approaching  to  interference  with  their  liberties,  whether  on  the 
part  of  king  or  priest,  this  cross  was  their  ci\-ic  citadel,  and  it  often 
proved  at  Edinburgh  stronger  than  the  strong  Castle,  and  able  to  hold 
its  own  against  Hoh-rood  itself. 

The  Scottish  crosses  of  the  higher  class,  which  seem  to  have  been 
limited  to  the  chief  burghs,  had  the  peculiar  form  of  the  Mercat  Cross. 
A  very  fine  old  example,  known  locally  as  the  Chepnian's  Cross,  is  still 
to  be  seen,  nearly  perfect,  not  farther  off  than  Prestonpans;  and  a  large, 
handsome  specimen  adorns  the  market-place  of  Aberdeen.  The  Canon- 
sate  Cross  was  smaller,  but  similar  in  outline,  and  the  market  crosses  of 
Perth  and  Dundee,  now  removed,  were  also  of  this  important  class,  with 
a  high  platform  supporting  the  central  pillar  with  its  heraldic  termination. 
In  small  burghs  and  villages  the  market  crosses  were  of  the  ordinary 
type — a  series  of  steps,  on  which  is  a  small  base  or  pedestal  supporting  a 
column.  At  most  of  these  crosses  there  were  arrangements  for  securing 
law-breakers,  either  by  "  jongs  "  (iron  collars),  "  branks  "  (head-pieces), 
stocks,"  or  pillory. 

In  England  the  crosses  are  usually  of  a  more  monumental  character; 
some  resembling  the  Eleanor  crosses,  while  others,  such  as  the  beautiful 

'  Thomas  Arnukl,  History  of  the  Cross  of  Edinlnirgh. 


Market  Crosses 


J'D 


Cross  at 
Stourhead. 


crosses  at  Salisbury,  Chichester,  and  Malmesbury,  have  open  arcades  in 
tlicir  lower  portion,  surmounted  by  flying  buttresses  and  other  acces- 
sories. 

At  Stourhead,  Wiltshire,  is  a  most  exipiisite  cross,  which,  b)-  right  of 
its  original  design,  ought  to  be  classed  among  memorial  crosses,  but  it 
was  afterwards  used   as  a  market   cross.      It   was   built    in 
Bristol  ill   1373.  and,   as  in  the  case  of  many  others,  uprm 
the  site  of  a  more  ancient  cross,  and   intended  in  Imnur  uf   Edward  III., 
who    about    that    time    constituted 
Bristol  a  town  and  county  in  itself. 
Statues  of  John,  Henry  III.,  Edward 
III.,    and    Edward    I\'.   were   placed 
in    niches    around   the    edifice.       In 
1633,  it  was  enlarged  and  raised,  and 
the    statues    of     Henry   VI.,    Eliza- 
beth, Charles  I.,  and  James  I.  were 
added,   because  each   of  the    sover- 
eigns had  renewed  and  confirmed  the 
charter  of  the  city.     These  improve- 
ments  cost    Ljoj  \    its   total   height 
was   thirty-nine  feet  six  inches.      In 
1697,   it    was    again    repainted    and 
gilded.        Less    than   forty  years  of 
Puritanism  exhibited  its  efTect.     The 
token  of  Christ  was  despised,  and  a 
silversmith,'  in  1733,  had  it  removed 

and  thrown  intci  the  Guildhall,  where  it  remained  until  by  private  exer- 
tion it  was  erected  on  the  College  Green.  There  it  was  not  long  per- 
mitted to  stand,  for,  in  1763.  it  was  again  levelled  to  the  ground  and 
thrown  into  an  obscure  corner,  until  the  Rev.  Cutts  Barton,  Dean  of  the 
Cathedral,  gave  it  to  Mr.  Hoare.  of  Stourhead,  who  expended  ;^300  in 
its  removal  to  and  re-erection  in  that  place,  at  which  time  the  base,  top, 
and  central  pier  were  added.' 

Another  cross,  that  at  Devizes,  also  in  Wiltshire,  has  served,  among 


Salisbury  Market  Cross. 


'  Was  his  name  Demetrius  ? 

''  Barrett,  History  of  Bristol,  p.  494  ;  quoted  in  Britton's  Architt'ctural  Antiquities,  vol.  i. 


p.  79. 


Cross  of  Stourhead. 
From  liritton's  Architectural  Anlii/iiitifS. 


316 


Market  Crosses 


317 


M 

A  m  «v  m  « 
.    w  'h  *  )«  ft    ^, 


its  other  purposes,  to  perpetuate  a  notable  public  event.  It  is  a  simple 
octagonal  cross,  upon  a  square  pedestal,  with  the  iuxhi-  j^^^^^^,  ^^ ^^^ 
tectural  faults  of  the  period  at  which  it  was  repaired,  about  at  Devizes  cross. 
1820,  by  the  piety  and  liberality  of  the  then  Lord  Sidmouth.  On  the 
eastern  side  is  this  singular  inscription:  "  The  Mayor  and  Corporation 
of  Devizes  avail  themselves  of  the  stability  of  this  building,  to  transmit 
to  future  times  the  record  of  an  awful  event,  which  occurred  in  this 
market-place,  in  the  year  1753;  hoping  that  such  record  may  serve  as  a 
salutary  warning  against  tlie  danger  of  impiously  invoking  Divine  ven- 
geance, or  of  calling  011  the  holy  9 
name  of  God  to  conceal  the  de-  I 
vices  of  falsehood  and  fraud.                                            rffii 

"  On  Thursday,  the  25th  of 
January,  1753,  Ruth  Pierce,  of 
Petterne,  in  this  county,  agreed 
with  three  other  women  to  buy  a 
sack  of  wheat  in  the  market,  each 
paying  her  due  proportion  towards 
the  same;  one  of  these  women,  in 
collecting  the  several  quotas  of 
money,  discovered  a  deficiency, 
and  demanded  of  Ruth  Pierce  the 
sum  which  was  wanting  to  make 
good  the  amount;  Ruth  Pierce 
protested  that  she  had  paid  her 
share,  and  said  '  S//c  7C'/s/h</  slw 
might  drop  dozen  dead,  if  sJic  Iiad 
not!'  She  rashly  repeated  this 
awful  wish,  when,  to  the  conster- 
nation and  terror  of  the  surrounding  multitude,  she  instantly  fell  down  and 
expired,   having  the  money  concealed  in  her  hand." 

In  a  sermon  preached  on  the  subject  by  Dr.  H.  Stebbing,  Archdeacon 
of  Wilts,  and  published  in  1760,  we  find  a  full  account  of  this  striking 
dispensation.  "  And  I  submit  it  to  the  common  sense  of  mankind," 
says  the  preacher,  "  whether  this,  and  such  like  instances,  many  of 
which  occur  in  history,  are  not  a  very  strong  presumptive  evidence  from 
fact,  for  the  truth  of  a  directing  Providence." 


li 


r 


IX-vizcs   .Market  Cross. 


'1  he  High  t  ro'.s,  luriiuTly  in  tlic  .Markcl-l'hice  at  \Vi 
From  I'ooley's  OM  Sloiie  Crosses  of  Somersft. 


3lS 


Market  Crosses  319 

la  purity  of  outline  and  exquisite  symmetry  of  proportions,  scarcely 
any  example  can  surpass  the  cross  erected  in  the  market-place  at  Wells, 
A.D.  1542.  Leland,  who  visited  this  city  at  the  time  of  its  construction, 
states  that  "  Wyllyam  Knit;ht,  now  Bishop  of  Bath,  buildcth  a  Crosse 
in  the  Market  Place,  a  right  sumptuous  Peace  of  Worke :  in  the  Extreme 
Circumference  whereof  be  vij  faire  Pillers,  and  in  another  Circumference 
withyn  them  be  vi  Pillers  and  yn  the  middle  of  this  circumference  one 
Pillcr.  Al  these  shaul  here  a  Volte ;  and  over  the  Volte  shaul  be  Domus 
Ch'ica."  In  a  marginal  note  is  added:  "  This  work  was  made  by  the 
Legacie  of  Doctor  Wolman,  Deane  of  Welles."  The  municipal  records 
often  notice  this  old  cross  as  the  place  where  public  proclamations  were 
always  first  read  ;  and  in  Bishop  Knight's  will  it  is  provided  that  the  tolls 
of  the  Market  Cross  shall  be  given  "  for  the  use  of  the  Choristers  of  the 
Cathedral  church  forever." 

The  ground  plan  of  this  cross  is  hexagonal,  rising  from  its  open  base- 
ment to  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  stages,  and  to  its  tapering  spire, 
with  the  utmost  grace  and  elegance.  The  exquisitely  mullioned  win- 
dows of  the  second  story,  which  is  strengthened  and  supported  by  the 
flying  buttresses,  and  surrounded  by  a  pierced  parapet  and  crocketed 
pinnacles,  and  above  this  the  third  story,  keeping  the  same  lines,  but 
varying  the  ornamentation,  and  surmounted  also  by  its  pierced  parapet 
and  pinnacles,  form  together  a  fitting  foundation  to  be  crowned  by  the 
slender  spire.  These  features,  says  Pooley,  together  with  the  loftiness 
of  the  arches,  with  their  buttressed  piers,  and  the  central  column  piercing 
the  whole,  combined  to  render  this  cross  one  of  the  most  harmoniously 
beautiful  in  the  kingdom.  It  survived  until  1785,  when,  a  portion 
having  fallen  down  and  the  remainder  being  considered  in  a  ruinous 
state  and  dangerous,  it  was  ordered  by  the  Corporation  of  Wells  to  be 
taken  down,  and  "  that  the  place  where  the  cross  stood  be  appropriated 
for  exposing  fish  and  vegetables  for  sale."  ' 

These  crosses  for  a  long  time  served  the  public  as  Town  Halls  and 
Merchants'  Exchanges,  as  well  as  produce  markets.  The  news  of  the 
day  was  circulated  there.  Official  proclamations  were  made  from  them. 
Henry  IV.  answers  the  accusations  of  Worcester: 

"  These  things,  indeed,  you  have  articulate. 
Proclaimed  at  market-crosses,  read  in  churches, 
'  Pooley,  Old  Stone  Crosses  of  Somerset,  pp.  95-100 


2)2o  History  of  the  Cross 

To  face  the  garment  of  rebellion 
With  some  fine  colour,  that  may  please  the  eye 
Of  fickle  changelings,  and  poor  discontents, 
Which  gape,  and  rub  the  elbow,  at  the  news 
Of  hurly-burly  innovation."  ' 

Even  Puritans  paid  some  deference  to  the  once  sacred  ground,  for, 
during  the  Protectorate,  banns  of  marriage  were  pubhshed  from  the 
crosses. 

'  Shakespeare,  ist  part  Henry  IV.,  act  v..  sc.  I. 


CHAPTER  XVH 

LANDMARK   CROSSES 

LANDMARK  crosses  are  mentioned  about  the  year  528,  and  soon 
became  common,  not  only  as  tokens  of  dominion  and  bounds  of 
ecclesiastical  grounds,  and  of  those  belonging  to  such  ecclesi- 

Date  of  Land- 

astical  societies  as  the  Kniglits  'I  cmplars  and  Knights  Hos-  mark  crosses, 
pitallers,  but  of  those  belonging  to  royalty  and  the  nobility. 

Frequent  mention  of  them  occurs  in  history.  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  in 
A.D.  887,  mentions  crosses  engraved  on  boundary  stones.  Ingulphus 
tells  us  that  in  the  tenth  century  the  chancellor  Turkcticl  renewed  the 
stone  crosses  which  had  been  erected  b\^  Kcnulph,  first  Abbot  of  Croy- 
land,  where  they  had  been  destroyed.  At  Edmundsbury  the  monks 
erected  four  crosses,  one  at  each  extremity  of  the  town,  to  define  the 
limits  of  their  jurisdiction,  within  which  the  Abbot  exercised  episcopal 
authority." 

Bishop  Losinga  also  erected  a  cross  at  Norwich,  bearing,  among 
other  images,  probably  that  of  S.  Michael,  as  a  boundary  between  the 
church-lands  and  the  borough.' 

The  cross  was  used  so  that  no  man  for  conscience'  sake  would  dare  to 
remove  the  landmark.  Among  the  Irish  canons  of  the  eighth  century 
we  find  one  directing  that  a  cross  should  be  set  up  on  all 

Reasons  for  Use. 

consecrated  grounds,  not  only  to  mark  the  bounds,  but  also 
to  sanctify  the  spot.     A  few  centuries  later  we  find  a  law  in   England 
forbidding  men  falsely  to  set  up  a  cross  on  their  lands,  thus,  by  pretend- 
ing that  the}'  belonged  to  the  Church,  defrauding  the  state  of  the  taxes. 
Like  many  other  customs,  the  perambidation  of  boundaries  was  part 

'  Dugdale,  Monasticoti.  vol.  iii.,  p.  qg.  -  Ibid. 


322  History  of  the  Cross 

of  the  wisdom  of  the  Church  in  Christianizing  festivals  and  customs 
Anti  uit  of  common  among  the  pagans.  From  early  Roman  times  we 
Perambulations,  j^,^^  fj^^  celebration  of  the  festivals  called  Tenniiialia,  in 
honor  of  Terminus,  who  was  the  guardian  of  fields  and  landmarks,  and 
the  preserver  of  peace  and  good-will  among  men.' 

This  usage  was  retained  long  after  Puritan  outrage  had  destroyed  the 

crosses,  leaving  often  only  fragments,  hence  they  were  sometimes  called 

stump  crosses.      Rogations  occur  as  early  as  A.D.  550,  when. 

stump  Crosses.  -  ,  ,_  _.^, 

they  were  first  observed  by  Mamertius,  Bishop  of  Vienna, 
on  account  of  the  frequent  earthquakes  that  happened,  and  the  incursions 
of  wild  beasts." 

In  the  fourth  century  public  supplications  for  God's  favor  and  depre- 
cation of  his  wrath  were  observed.      Part  of  these  services  were  proces- 
sions with  crosses,  candles,  and  hymns.     The  major  litanies 

Litanies. 

were  made  through  the  streets,  the  minor  within  the  close, 
cloister,  and  interior  of  the  church.  Some  say  that  the  major  were 
made  on  the  Festival  of  S.  Mark,  and  the  minor  on  Rogation  Days. 
S.  Gregory  instituted  the  greater  procession  on  April  25th,  enjoining  a 
procession  of  seven  orders,  the  clergy,  abbots,  and  monks ;  abbesses  and 
nuns  ;  boys  ;  laity,    widows,    and    married   women.      These  were  called 

black  crosses,  because  they  originated  during  a  pestilence 

Black  Crosses. 

in  Rome,  and  the  altars  and  crosses  were  veiled  in  black, 
and  the  processions  draped  in  mourning.  In  France,  bare  feet,  ashes, 
and  sackcloth  were  prescribed.  Mills  tells  us  that  tlie  same  name  in  that 
country  was  also  applied  to  the  processions  in  honor  of  the  great  multi- 
tude who  perished  in  the  Crusades. '' 

'  Spelman,  Ghssary,  art.  "  Perambul.itio "  ;  quoted  in  Uraml,  Antiquities,  vol.  i..  pp. 
116,  119. 

-  By  the  Canons  of  S.  Cuthbert,  .\rchbishop  of  Canterbury,  made  at  Cloveshoo,  in  the  year 
747,  it  was  ordered  that  "  Litanies,  that  is.  Rogations,  should  be  observed  by  the  clergy  and  all 
the  people,  with  great  reverence,  on  the  sev'enth  of  the  calends  of  May,  according  to  the  rites  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  which  terms  this  the  greater  Litany,  and  also,  according  to  the  custom  of 
our  forefathers,  on  the  three  days  before  the  .\scension  of  our  Lord,  with  fastings,"  etc. 

In  the  Injunctions  also  made  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  it  is  ordered  "that  the 
Curate,  at  certain  and  convenient  places,  shall  admonish  the  people  .  .  .  saying  the  103rd 
and  104th  Psalms,  the  Litany  and  .Suffcrages,  together  with  the  Ilomily  set  forth  for  that  pur- 
pose. 'I'hanks  were  given  to  God  for  hopes  of  plenty,  and  a  prayer  for  mercy  if  scarcity  seemed 
impending,  and  the  wardens  were  admonished  to  assist  the  Rector.  At  which  time  the  minister 
shall  inculcate  these,  or  such  sentences — '  Cursed  be  he  which  translateth  the  bounds  and  doles 
of  his  neighbours.' " — Brand,  Antiquities,  vol.  i.,  pp.  116-122. 

'  Holland,  Cruciaua,  p.  124  ;   Mills,  History  of  the  Crusades,  chap.  i. 


Landmark  Crosses  323 

Rogation  Days,  invoking  God's  blessing  on  the  liarvest,  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Councils  of  Orleans,  A.U.  515,  and  Mayence,  A.D.  813.  In 
England,    on  the   three   Rogation    Days   before   Ascension 

Perambulations. 

Day,  the  dragon  was  carried ;  on  the  first  two  days  before 
the  Cross,  on  the  last  day  behind  it,  to  typify  the  victory  over  the  devil. 
Earth   and    grass   were    placed    on    the    boundary   crosses,    and   prayers 
offered  to  avert  pestilence. 

How  these  customs  were  esteemed  may  be  learned  from  the  practice 
of  the  "  judicious  "  Hooker  and  the  advice  of  "  holy  "  George  Herbert. 
Of  the  first  we  read  that,  "  He  would  by  no  means  omit  the 

Perambulations 

customary  time  of  Procession,  persuading  all,  both  rich  and  Recommended  by 

Divines. 

poor,  if  they  desired  the  preservation  of  love,  and  their 
parish  rights  and  liberties,  to  accompany  him  in  his  Perambulation;  and 
most  did  so ;  in  whicli  Perambulation  he  would  usually  express  more 
pleasant  discourse  than  at  other  times,  and  would  then  always  drop  some 
loving  and  facetious  observations,  to  be  remembered  against  the  next 
year,  especially  by  the  boys  and  young  people;  still  inclining  them,  and 
all  his  present  parishioners,  to  meekness  and  mutual  kindness  and  love, 
because  love  thinks  no  evil,  but  covers  a  multitude  of  infirmities."  ' 

Herbert  says,  "  The  Country  Parson  is  a  Lover  of  old  Customs,  if 
the\'  be  good  and  harmless;  and  the  rather,  because  Country  people  are 
much  addicted  to  them,  so  that  to  favour  them  therein  is  to  win  their 
hearts,  and  to  oppose  them  therein  is  to  deject  them.  If  there  be  any 
ill  in  the  custom  that  may  be  severed  from  the  good,  he  pares  the  apple, 
and  gives  them  the  clean  to  feed  on.  Particularly  he  loves  Procession, 
and  maintains  it  because  there  are  contained  therein  four  manifest  ad- 
vantages: First,  A  blessing  of  God  for  the  fruits  of  the  field;  Secondly, 
Justice  in  the  Preservation  of  bounds;  Thirdly,  Charity  in  loving  walk- 
ing, and  neighbourly  accompanying  one  another,  with  reconciling  of 
differences  at  that  time,  if  there  be  any;  P'ourthly,  Mercy  in  relieving 
the  poor  by  a  liberal  distribution  and  largess,  which  at  that  time  is,  or 
ought  to  be  used.  Wherefore  he  exacts  of  all  to  be  present  at  the  Per- 
ambulation, and  those  that  withdraw,  and  sever  themselves  from  it,  he 
mislikes,  and  reproves  as  uncharitable  and  unneighbourly;  and  if  they 
will  not  reform,  presents  them."  ' 

'  Walton,  Lives,  p.  239.  '  Herbert,  Country  Parson,  chap.  xxxv. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

WAYSIDE,    STREET,    AND   WEEPING   CROSSES 

THE  early  Christians  were  careful  to  adapt  their  Holy-day  feasts  to 
the  pagan  festivals,  rather  than  do  violence  to  the  old-time  cus- 
„  .  .     ,,.,         toms   endeared  to  their  converts  :   so  also  they  respected 

Origin  of  Way-  '  -'  ^ 

side  Crosses.  their  Hcrmes,  or  statues  of  Mercury,  set  by  the  roadside, 
and  especially  where  three  paths  met,  and  did  not  abolish  them,  but 
sanctified  them  by  changing  them  to  wayside  crosses.  S.  Chrysostom 
refers  to  the  usage  in  his  day,'  and  the  Boo/c  of  Homilies  brings  the 
fashion  almost  to  our  own  time.^ 

Wayside  crosses  are  almost  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  Western  Church, 

yet  they  are  found   in   the   Eastern.     They  are   met  with  in  Circassia, 

Wallachia,  and  even  as  far  west  as  the  Alps.     The  Western 

■Wayside  Crosses 

peculiar  to  the      fomi    of    the    CTOss    is    uscd,   but    tlic    inscription,    IC.XC. 

■Western  Church.  .....^   ^       i.    t  ^i      •        ^  ■•      i  i  i  i         i 

NIkA,  Jesus  Christ  Conquers,  shows  as  thoroughly  the 
footprints  of  the  Greek  Church  as  the  I.H.S.  the  Latin.  This  monogram 
is  almost  the  last  symbol  adopted  by  the  crusaders. 

In  Circassia  are  found  small  iron  crosses  chained  to  the  branches  of 
the  oak  trees.  In  \Vallachia  the  crosses  are  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  in 
,    _.        .       .    heisjht,    either  of  stone  or   of  wood,    bearing  inscriptions. 

In  Circassia  and  ^^       '  '  &  I 

Wallachia.  They  extend  along  the  Danube  to  the  Carpathian  Mount- 

ains, and  sometimes  occur  in  groups  of  ten  or  twelve.  In  the  southern 
districts  is  seen  the  monogram  IC.XC,  but  in  the  northern,  the  Latin 
I.H.S. 

'  Chrysostnm,  Quoii  Chrhtiis  Mr/  Deus. 

''"They  used  in  times  past,  to  set  in  highwaysides,  the  pictures  (statues)  of  Mercury 
pointing  with  his  finger  which  was  the  right  way  to  the  town.  And  we  use  in  crossways  to  set 
up  a  wooden,  or  stone,  cross  to  admonish  the  travelling  man  which  way  he  must  turn  when  he 
Cometh  thither  to  direct  his  journey  aright." — Homily  of  AlnisJc-i-ih,  p.  343,  Oxford  ed.,  it>Gi. 

3-4 


Wayside,  Street,  and  Weeping  Crosses 


But,  to  come  nearer  home,  Shakespeare  reminds  us  of  one  of  the 
uses  of  the  wayside  crosses,  when,  in  the  Merchant  ^'/ wayside  cross^ 
Venice,  he  makes  Stephano  apoloiri/.e  to   Lorenzo    for   the      Referred  to  by 

^  Shakespeare. 

absence  of  Portia: 

■'  Slie  doth  stray  about 
By  holy  crosses  where  she  kneels  and  jirays 
For  happy  wedlock  hours."' 

Again,  in  the  Merry  Devil  of  Edmonton,  the  father  accounts  for  the 
delay  in  a  wedding: 


"  But  there  are  crosses, 
wife  ;  here  's  one  in 
Waltham. 

Another  at  the  .\bbey, 
and  the  third 

At  Chester,  and't  is  om- 
inous to  pass 

Any  of  these  without  a 
pater  noster." 

One  wayside  cross 
will  recur  to  the  mem- 
ory of  the  reader  whose 
youthful  love  for  poetry 
and  honor  owes  its 
training  to  the  magic  of 
Scott.  How 
many  a  breast 
has  heaved  when  they 
read  Clara  de  Clare's 
ministration  to  the  d}'- 
ing  Marmion,  when  : 


By  Scott. 


" — half  he    niurmur'd, — 

'  Is  there  none 

Of    all     my     halls    have  Cross  at  Inver.iry. 

l-nil-j;(  From  Yi\^\io'p'%  Pictorial  Arctiitccture. 

Page,    scpiire,   or    groom,  one  cup  to  bring 
Of  blessed  water  from  the  spring. 
To  slake  my  dying  thirst  ? '  " 

'  Act  v.,  sc.  i 


o 


26  History  of  the  Cross 


By  Keble. 


Clara  forgets  her  wrongs,  but — 

"Where  sliall  she  turn  ?  behold  her  mark 
A  little  fountain  cell, 
Where  water  clear  as  diamond-spark. 
In  a  stone  basin  fell. 
Above,  some  half-worn  letters  sav, 

'  Drink  .  weary  .  pilgrim  .  drink  .  and  .  pray, 
For  .  the  .  kind  .  soul  .  of  .  Svbil  .  Grev, 
Who  .  built  .  this  .  cross  .  and  .  well.'  "  ' 

With  feelings  nearly  akin  we  read  the  lines  over  a  cross,  traced  by 
a  hand  dear  to  every  Churchman.     At  Ampfield,   England,  the  water 
gushes    from    a  spring    above  which   are  the  lines  by   the 
author  of  the  Christian   Year: 

"While  cooling  waters  here  you  drink. 

Rest  not  your  thoughts  below, 
Look  at  the  sacred  sign  and  think, 

Whence  living  waters  flow. 
Then  fearlessly  advance  by  night  or  day, 
The  Holy  Cross  stands  guardian  of  our  way." 

A  wayside  cross  was  set  up  by  the  Fitz  William  famil)-,  which  was 
_       p     ,  ..     standing    until    about    1520,    on    wliich    was    engraved    the 

Cross  trected  by  ^  -'        '  o 

the  Fitz  William    followinsr: 
Family.  ° 

"Whoso  is  hungry,  and  lists  to  ate 
Let  him  come  to  Sjirodburgh  to  his  meate  ; 
And  for  a  night,  and  for  a  day 
His  horse  shall  have  both  corn  and  hav. 
And  no  man  shall  ask  him  where  he  goes  awa\'."^ 

Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  immense  number  of  crosses,  way- 
side, inarkct,  etc.,  formerly  in  Great  Britain   from  noticing  the  number 
of  places  which  retain  the  name  of  the  cro.ss  althoutjii  the 

Great  Number  of  '  ° 

Wayside  Crosses  structure    itself    has    disappeared.       In    Devonshire    alone 

in  Ancient  Times. 

tlicre  arc  one  hundred  and  thirty-five  jilaces  so  designated.' 
Nor  was  I""rance  behind,  cither  in  the  number  nf  crosses  or  the  Gothic 
vandalism  of  their  destroyers.  On  the  return  of  the  Bourbons,  the 
restoration  of  the  wayside  crosses,  which  had  been  destroyed  in  the  Rev- 
olution, was  proposed.      It  was  fouiul   in    l-'inistere  alone   it  would  cost 

'  Mnnnion,  canto  v.,  s.tanzas  xxiv. ,  xxx. 

"  Stanford  and  Townsend,   T/ie  Great  Governing  Families  of  England,  vol.  i.,  p.  125. 

'  W.nlcott,  Sacred  Archeology,  "  Wayside  Cross." 


Wayside,  Street,  and  Weeping  Crosses  327 


Street  Crosses. 


mA 


no  less  than  1,500,000  francs,  llcncc  the  project  was  dropped  as  being 
too  expensive.' 

Street  crosses,  once  common  in  European  towns,  were  used,  like 
others  of  more  pretentious  proportions,  for  sermons,  publication  of  royal 
proclamations,  and  laws,  and  sometimes  they  pointed  out 
the  place  where  malefactors  were  hanged.  In  funeral  pro- 
cessions the  corpse,  while  being  conveyed  to  church,  was  set  down  by 
these  crosses,  in  order  that    the  attendants  [ 

might  pray  for  the  repose    of    the    soul   of  N>pt 

the  deceased.  Beggars  stationed  themselves 
at  them  to  implore  alms,  for  the  sake  of  Him 
of  whose  sufferings  they  were  reminded  by 
the  symbol.  Hence  the  old  proverb,  "He 
begs  like  a  cripple  at  the  cross."  Our  fore- 
fathers, following  tlie  early  Church,  recog- 
nized the  fact  that  there  was  scarcely  any 
locality  in  which  the  Cross  was  out  of  place. 
A  MS.  of  about  1312,  written  probably  by 
one  Adam  Davy,  entitled  T/u-  Pylgryinages 
of  the  Iioli  land,  begins  thus,  "  Ouevesoever 
a  cros  standyth,  thir  is  a  forgivenes  of 
payne. " 

Mounds  on  the  highway,  often,  probably, 
sepulchral  tumuli  over  the  remains  of  an  ear- 
lier people,  were  frequently  sur- 
mounted with  a  cross,  and  used 
as  wayside  crosses,  both  for  the  direction  of 
travellers,   and  as  affording  an   opportunity  • 

for  offering  petitions  for  themselves  and  for  the  repose  of  those  whose 
bodies  were  there  entombed.  The  names  of  these  graves  were  taken  up 
as  war-cries  in  former  times;  and  Montjoic  S.  Denis  was  adopted  as  that 
of  France;  Montjoic  Notre  Danic,  that  of  the  Dukes  of  Bourbon;  and 
Montjote  S.  Gco)-gt\  that  of  England. 

Wayside  crosses  are  common  in  Switzerland  and  in  the  South  of 
Europe.  Among  the  passes  of  the  Alps,  the  tourist  not  infrequently 
pauses  to  note  an  humble  cross,  bearing  only  some  initials,  and  a  date, 
preceded  by  P.  I.,  or,  when  written  at  length,  Pcrit  ici. 

'  Robert  Bell,   Wayside  Pictures,  p.  198. 


Montjoy. 


Tottenh.im  Cross. 


!28 


History  of  the  Cross 


Throughout  Italy  and  Spain,  and  transplanted  Spain — South  America 
— the,  emblem  of  life  records  death;  not,  as  in  Switzerland,  death  by  ac- 
cident, but  in  the  latter  countries  upon  the  rough  block  of  stone,  or  simple 

"lath,"  rudely  formed  into 
a  cross,  the  traveller  reads 
Aqui  inataron  (here  they 
killed)  such  an  one. 

"  And  here  and  there,  as  up  the 
crag  you  spring, 
Mark  many  rude-carved  cross- 
es near  the  path  ; 
Yet  deem    not  these    devotion's 
offering — 
These  are  memorials  frail  of 

murderous  wrath  ; 
For   whereso'er  the  shrieking 
victim  JKith 
Poured  forth  his  blood  beneath 
the  assassin's  knife. 
Some  hand    erects  a  cross  of 
mouldering  lath  ; 
And  grove  and  glen  witli  thou- 
sand such  are  rife, 
Tliroughout     tliis    purple    land, 
Wayside  Cross  in  the  Alps.  where  law  secures  not  life." 

From  Holland's  Criiciana. 

Penances  were  very  commonly  performed  at  wayside  and  other 
crosses,  and,  as  they  were  attended  with  manifestations  of  contrition, 
Penance  at  hcucc  arosc  the  name  of  Weeping  Crosses.'     The  memory 

Weeping  Crosses. j^f  ^j^j^  pious  custoui  is  preserved  in  an  old  English  pro\'erb: 
The   way  to   Heaven   is  by  Weeping  Cross."     Another 
homely  distich  is: 

"  He  that  goeth  out  with  often  loss. 
At  last  comes  liome  by  Weeping  Cross." 

The  early  dramatists  often  allude  to  the  course  of  some  one  of  the 
draiiialis  pcrsoiKC  ?\.f,\WQ\y  to  end  at  the  "  Weeping  Cross,"  that  is,  in 
sorrow   and   repentance.     Thus  in  the  old  comedy  of  Eastward  Hoc'': 

'  Near  Stafford  stood  a  cross  commonly  called  "  Weeping  Cross,"  from  its  being  a  place 
often  designated  for  the  expiation  of  sin.  T.  Astle  on  Crosses,  etc.,  London  Antiquities 
Society,  1798,  p.  216. 

'  The  slang  expression  for  being  hanged  at  New  Gate  was  to  go  "  Westward  Ho."  Doran, 
Annals  of  l/ie  S/iii^'i'. 


Wayside,  Street,  and  Weeping  Crosses  329 


"  My  daughter,  his  lailic,  was  sent  Eastward  b\-  land  to  a  castle  of  his 
i'  the  aire,  (in  what  region  I  know  not),  and  as  I  heare,  was  glad  to  take 
up  her  lodging  in  her  coach,  she  and  her  two  waiting  women,  her  maide, 
and  her  mother,  like  three  snails  in  a  shell.  ...  I  think  since  they 
have  all  found  the  way  backe  again  by  '  Weeping  Cross.'  " 

A  noted  weeping  cross  at  Shrewsbury  was  used  as  a  station,  which 
on    Corpus    Christi     Day    was    visited    by    various    guilds,  used  in 

corporate    and    religious    bodies,    to    oHer   prayers    for   an  Rogations, 

abundant  harvest. 

Sometimes  crosses  known  as  weeping  crosses  were  erected  as  memo- 
rials of  private  grief,  such  as  that  raised  by  Queen  Matilda  at  Caen  in 
memory  of  her  sorrows  caused  by  the  cruelty  of  her  hus-  Memorials  of 
band,  William  of  Normandy.     The  example  given  in  the     Personal  Grief. 

illustration  is  that  of  "  Ampney  Cru-  -.  -^  _, 

-\      ■^ 
cis,"  on  the  Fairf(.)rd  road,  about  two  ',  ^     .■ 

^     .   -'  •»- 

miles    from    Cirencester.     The    shaft 

rises  octagonally  and  very  boldly  from 
two  large  square  step  sand  a  set-off, 
and  is  crowned  by  a  sort  of  tabernacle, 
with  an  inclined  ruof.  This  custom 
of  resorting  to  a  spot  set  apart  for 
penitence  or  lamentation  has  early 
authority  in  the  custom  of  the  Jews, 
who,  down  to  the  present  day,  go 
every  week  to  the  walls  of  the  Tem- 
ple, and  lament  over  its  destruction." 

Formerly,  in  England,  the  bodies 
of  suicides  were  buried  at  cross-roads, 
and  were  pierced  with  a  ^^,^,^^^  g^^;^^ 
stake.  This  custom  was  at  cross-Hoads. 
abolished  by  an  Act  of  Parliament, 
July  8,  1823.      It  has  been  suggested. 


,,,.„/i«.%j'W' 


■'"*  %ii" 


^,U>l(l 


'  Ampney  Crucis,  "  near  Cirencester. 


and  the  suggestion  deserves  consider- 
ation,  that,   originally,    this    place  of 

sepulture   was   not   selected   as   an  indignity,  but  because    there   was  a 
wayside  cross  in   old   times  at   the    intersection   of  roads,  and    so   in    a 

'  Alfred  Rimmer,  Ancient  Slom  Crosses  of  England,  p.   127. 


S30  History  of  the  Cross 

certain  sense  their  unblessed  graves  were  hallowed,  and  the  wayfarer  was 
reminded  of  his  de\'otions,  especially  that  some  prayer  might  be  offered 
for  the  poor  soul,  who,  a  beggar  by  the  wayside,  craved  the  alms  of  a 
supplication  for  mercy.  The  stake  also  was  meant  not  for  a  punishment, 
but  for  a  protection  against  the  removal  of  the  bodies. 

The  Jews  placed  a  cross  on  the  graves  of  those  who  had  died  an  un- 
fortunate death,  but  with  a  different  signification  from  that  of  oilT  fore- 
fathers. The  post-Christian  Church  used  the  Cross  as  the  badge  of 
mercy,  the  ante-Christian,  that  of  shame. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

MORTUARY    AXD    ISURIAL   CROSSES 

THE  Cross  was  not  only  the  sign  wliereby  the  early  saints  lived,  but 
when  the  Angel  of  Death  was  about  to  close  the  record  of  their 
earthly  lives,  the  prayer  of  the  weary  ones,  breathed  with     „.    „.       ,.. 

^  ^  I        J  J  ^  1  ne  oign  ol  the 

fluttering  breath,  was:  "  Sign  me  with  the  sign  of  Christ,  cross  at  Death, 
and  pour  out  your  prayers  for  me." 

Nicephorus  records  the  tradition  that  the  Apostle  S.  John,  when  he 
knew  the  hour  was  approaching  that  he  should  pass  to  his  God,  "  forti- 
fied himself  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  and  descended  into  the  tomb."  ' 
The  instance  of  S.  Ambrose  has  been  already  alluded  to. 

Sometimes,  while  strength  lasted,  the  departing  stretched  forth  his 
arms  in  acknowledgment  of  Him  in  whose  service  he  had  labored,  or 
commanded   a  "  bed  of  penitence  "to  be  made  of  ashes, 

Cruciform  Bed 

or  of  the  dust  to  which  he  was  so  soon  to  return,  spread  in  of  Ashesor 

"  Penitence." 

a  cruciform  shape,  and  thus  met  tbe  last  enemy.  Upon 
such  a  couch  did  Ludovicus,  Louis  VI.,  and  Louis  IX.  render  up  their 
souls;  the  latter  monarch  with  his  arms  composed  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 
Upon  such  a  "  bed  of  penitence  "  expired  Henry  HI.  of  England.  Louis 
le  Gros  breathed  his  last  in  the  act  of  signing  himself  with  the  Cross, 
imitating  Charlemagne,  who,  in  his  last  hour,  impressed  his  forehead, 
breast,  and  body  with  the  holy  sign.  And  in  later  times  the  good  Bishop 
Jolly,  of  Scotland,  following  the  example  of  S.  Ambrose,  thus  extend- 
ing his  arms,  gave  up  his  spirit.  Did  space  allow,  many  other  examples 
might  be  given ' ;  yet  one  more  must  not  be  passed  by. 

Among  the  illustrious  persons  who  died  on  the  "  bed  of  penitence," 
no  one  is  more  worthy  of  mention  than  S.  Hugo  of  Avalon,  monk  of  the 

'  Nicephorus,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  42. 

'  For  which  see  Gretser,  De  Criiec,  torn,  i.,  lib.  iv.,  cip.  26. 

331 


33-  Histor}'  of  the  Cross 

Grand  Chartreuse,  who  was  imitcd  to  Enghmd  by  Henry  II.,  became 
Bishop  of  Lincohi,  and  in  this  position  defended  the  Churcli  most 
nobly,  even  when  he  had  to  oppose  Henry  II.  and  Ricliard  I.  When 
the  time  of  his  death  drew  near,  he  gave  directions  as  to  his  grave  in 
Lincoln  Cathedral,  and  bade  his  Chaplain  make  a  cross  of  ashes  on  the 
floor  of  his  cell.  It  was  a  November  afternoon.  The  choristers  of  S. 
Paul's  were  chanting  the  compline  service  around  him;  before  it  was 
finished  he  motioned  that  he  shoidd  be  laid  on  the  ashes.  The  choir 
sang  on,  and  as  they  began  the  Xiiiic  Diiiiittis,  the  servant  of  God 
departed  in  peace.' 

From  very  early  times  it  was  the  custom  to  hold  the  Cross  before  the 
dying,  that  their  last  gaze  might  rest  upon  it,  and  in  that  fearful 
_         ...  moment  the\-  might  be  reminded  of  their  purchased  salva- 

Cross  at  the  ,  »  i 

Hour  of  Death,     tjon,  and  of  the  staff  which  was  to  be  their  support  in  pass- 
ing through  the  Valley  of  the  Shadow  of  Death  to  the  Paradise  beyond. 
Hold  the  Cross  before  me  that  I  ma\'  see  it  in  dying,"  entreated  Joan 
of  Arc  when  at  the  stake.     An  English  soldier  hastily  broke 

Joan  of  Arc. 

a  branch  and  tied  the  two  pieces  together  in  the  form  of  a 
cross,  and  gave  them  to  the  patriot  martyr.  A  priest  forced  his  way 
through  the  crowd  and  endeavored  to  reach  a  crucifix  to  her,  till  she, 
perceiving  that  his  life  was  endangered  by  the  flames,  begged  him  to 
desist.  A  blast  of  wind,  as  if  heaven-directed,  drove  away  for  a  moment 
the  smoke  and  flames.  Joan  was  seen  clasping  her  rude  cross  to  her 
heart.  Above  the  crackling  and  roar  of  the  fire  was  heard  her  last  word, 
Jesus,"  as  it  ascended  to  mingle  with  the  prayers  of  those  under  the 
altar,  who  crj'  day  and  night,  "  How  long,  O  Lord!"  Tradition  says, 
that  at  the  last  moment  a  white  dove  was  seen  flying  to  heaven.''' 
_.  _.  „   ,  Sir  Thomas  More  walked  to  the  scaffold  carrving  in  his 

Sir  Thomas  -         o 

^°^^-  hands  a  red  cross. 

Just  before  the  execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  .Scots,  the  Earl  of  Kent, 
seeing  that  her  contemplation  was  rix'cted  upon  the  crucifix  in  her  hand, 
Mary  Queen  rudely  tauutcd  her,  "  Madam,  tlu:  Cross  will  awiil  you  little 
°'^'^°'^-  if  it  is  not    imprinted   upon  your  heart."     "  Ah,"   replied 

Mary,  "  tliere  is  nothing  more  becoming  a  dying  Christian  than  to  carry 

'  Froude,  Short  Studies  on  Great  Subjects, — "  A  Bisliop  of  the  Twelfth  Century." 
'  Elty's  description  of  his  painting  of  Joan  of  Arc  ;   Leslie,  I  [and  Book  for  Young  Painters, 
p.  2oq. 


Mortuary  and  Burial  Crosses  333 

in  his  hands  that  rcmcniljrancc  of  his  redemption.  How  is  it  possible  to 
have  such  an  object  in  i)iir  hands,  and  keep  our  lieart  unmoved?"' 
Then,  having  kissed  it,  she  prayed,  with  her  eyes  still  fixed  upon  the 
image  of  her  crucified  Saviour, — "  Even  as  thy  arms,  ()  Jesus  I  were 
sprede  here  ui)on  the  Crosse,  so  receive  me  into  thy  arms  of  mercy,  and 
forgive  me  all  my  sinnes." 

Upon  the  battlefield  the  dying  soldier  pressed  his  lips  to  the  cross- 
hilt  of  his  sword  in  token  of  his  reliance  on  Him  who,  on  the  Cross  of 
Calvary,  became  his  armor-bearer,  against  whose  sword  and  cross-hiit 

buckler  the  attacks  of  the  enemy  of  souls  availed  naught.  ofsword. 

In  this  act  of  devotion  expired  Don  Rodrigo  Trogoz,  the  noble  Cheva- 
lier Bayard,  and  many  others  less  known  on  earth,  but,  doubtless, 
whose  faith  and  deeds  have  written  their  names  as  fairly  in  the  Book  of 
Life. 

"The  sword  had  coiKiuered  kings, 

And  tlie  sjiear  through  realms  had  passed, 
But  the  Cross  alone  of  all  seen  things 

Could  avail  them  at  the  last." 

An  instance  of  the  ruling  passion  strong  in  death  was  exhibited  by 
the  celebrated  Spanish  painter,  Alonzo  Cano.  In  his  last  moments  a 
crucifix,  of  indifferent  execution,  was  put  into  his  hands  by       „  ... 

'  1  -'  Cano  and  the 

his  confessor.     Cano  desired  him  to  take  it  away.      Horror-  Crucifix, 

struck,  the  priest  thought  him  possessed  of  a  devil,  and  proceeded  to 
exorcise  him.  "  My  son,"  said  the  holy  man,  "  what  dost  thou  mean  ? 
This  is  the  Lord  who  redeemed  thee,  and  who  must  save  thee."  "  I 
know  that  well,"  replied  the  painter,  "  but  do  you  want  to  provoke  me 
with  this  wretched  thing  so  as  to  give  me  over  to  the  devil  ?  Let  me 
have  a  simple  cross,  for  with  that  I  can  reverence  Christ  in  faith.  I  can 
worship  Him  as  he  is  in  Himself,  and  as  I  contemplate  Him  in  my  own 
mind."  This  was  brought,  "  and  Alonzo  Cano  died  in  the  most  exem- 
plary manner,  edifying  the  bystanders  with  his  piety."  ' 

An  equally  celebrated  artist,  whose  name  has  escaped  our  memory, 
turned  with  abhorrence  from  a  rude  crucifix  presented  at  his  last  hour, 
and  demanded  that  one  of  Donatello's  should  be  brought,  that  his  dying 
moments  might  not  be  disturbed  by  the  sight  of  such  revolting  ugliness. 

'  Tyler,  //ist.  of  EnglanJ,  vol.  viii.,  p.  403.  The  crucifix  used  by  Mary  on  ihe  scaflold  is 
still  preserved  by  a  titled  family  in  Winchester.  The  image  is  of  ivory,  the  cross  of  ebony. 
JVott's  and  Qtu-rics^  Ibt  ser.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  517.        -  Head,  TIayuibook  of  Spanish  FalJititigs,  p.  122. 


34  History  of  the  Cross 


30 

After  death,  a  cross  Avas  laid  upon  the  corpse  to  guard  it  against  evil 
,,      r..    _         spirits.      The    Anglo-Saxons   placed    on   it  a    book  of  the 

Use  of  the  Cross       i  &  I 

after  Death.  GospcIs,  tlie  codc  of  belief  of  the  departed,  and  the  Cross, 

the  emblem  of  his  hope.' 

Frail,  but  significant,  was  a  similar  cross  laid  upon  the  breast  of  the 

Duke  of  Guise,  renowned  as  Lr  Balafre,  who  was  assassinated  by  the 

order,  and  in  the  presence  of  Henry  III.      The  story  is  too 

Duke  of  Guise.  i  t-i         n  11  t-i 

long  to  be  recounted  in  detail.  Lrieny,  it  reads  thus:  The 
King  and  the  Duke  were  reconciled  in  1588,  and  partook  of  the  holy 
Sacrament  at  the  same  altar  in  token  of  amity;  but  even  then  Henry 
was  plotting  his  rival's  destruction.  An  opportunity  was  soon  afforded 
when  the  King  was  at  the  Castle  of  Blois.  The  Duke  was  summoned  at 
an  early  hour  to  the  King's  cabinet  under  pretence  of  meeting  the 
Council.  As  he  entered  he  was  attacked  by  the  hired  ruffians,  and  after 
a  manful  resistance,  fell  at  the  foot  of  the  ro\-al  couch.  Henry,  who 
had  remained  concealed  behind  the  tapestry  till  all  was  over,  drew  tlie 
curtain  aside.  The  noble  form  of  the  Duke  barred  his  entrance.  Kick- 
ing aside  the  head  that  he  might  pass,  he  brutally  exclaimed,  "  How  big 
he  was!"  An  old  carpet  was  flung  over  the  corpse,  and  one  of  the 
attendant  lords,  either  in  derision,  or  from  a  pious  desire  to  perform 
every  sacred  duty  possible,  made  a  cross  of  some  straw  which  chanced  to 

be  lying  by,  and  laid  it  upon  the  ignoble  pall.     The  next 

Cross  of  Straw. 

day  the  bodies  of  the  Duke  and  his  brother,  the  Cardinal  of 
Lorraine,  who  was  also  assassinated  in  the  same  castle,  were  burned,  and 
their  ashes  scattered,  lest  any  relic  should  be  preserved.  Frail  A\'as  the 
material  of  the  Cross,  yet  significant  of  the  brittle  tenure  of  power  held 
by  Henry  of  Guise,  and  equally  so  of  the  lives  of  his  enemies.  Twelve 
days  after  this  double  murder,  Catherine  de  Medicis  expired  in  delirium 
under  the  same  roof,  and  within  eight  months  Henry  of  Valois  himself 
fell  beneath  the  assassin's  knife. 

The  cross  was  often  buried  with  the  corpse.      When  the  tomb  of  John 
of  Gaunt,  "  time-honored  Lancaster,"  was  broken   into  by  some  labor- 
ers, a  rich  crucifi.x  was  stolen  from  the  gra\e.     The  arms  of 

Cross  in  Tombs. 

the  Ijody,  after  undergoing  some  strange  fortunes  in  the 
hands  of  an  itinerant  showman,  were  rescued,  and  are  now  preserved  in 
the  Ilunteri.in  Museimi. 

'  Lingaril,  Aiitiq.  Anglo-Saxon  Cliuir/i,  p.  158. 


Mortuary  and  Burial  Crosses  335 

The  crosses  tluis  found  were  of  different  materials.  A  small  silver 
cross  was  found  in  the  tomb  of  S.  Vinciana;  also,  in  1635,  a  wooden 
cross  was  found  with  the  reiiiains  of  S.  Martina.     Absolu-         ivji, „,;,,,  „r 

iVi oLcridjs  01 

tion  crosses,  as  in  the  instance  of  the  one  elsewhere  alluded  Crosses, 

to,  discovered  in  the  tomb  of  iXbelard  and  Heloise,  appear  to  have  been 
often  of  lead. 

The  earliest  use  of  the  incised  cross  over  a  tomb  was,  of  course,  in 
the  Catacombs,  but  one  of  the  earliest  canons  inculcating  reverence, 
strange  to  say,  we  find  among  those  whom  the  Romans  would  have 
called  Northern  barbarians.  Kenneth  of  Scotland,  in  the  ninth  century, 
commanded:  "  Let  every  sepulchre  be  esteemed  sacred,  and  let  it  be 
marked  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  and  take  care  lest  any  one  tread  on  it 
with  their  feet."  ' 

The  primitive  Romans  buried  the  dead  entire.^  From  Greece,  prob- 
ably, they  derived  the  custom  of  cremation.  Britain,  as  a  province  of 
Rome,  adopted  the  custom,  but  as  Christianity  prevailed  Early  Buriai 
and  respect  for  the  body  as  the  temple  of  the  Holy  Ghost  Customs, 

gradually  increased,  the  corpse  was  reverently  committed  to  the  grave, 


Stone  Coffin  of  Llewellyn,  Prince  of  Wales.     In  Llanrwst  Church. 
From  Boutell's  Christian  Monuments  in  England  and   IVahs. 

and  by  the  fourth  century,  burning,  although  not  altogether  abolished, 
was  rarely  used."  Nearer  mediaeval  times  we  find  that  the  bodies  were 
swathed,  like  the  ancient  mummies,  in  cloth,  leather,  or  lead,  the  last 
more  especially  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  The  use  of 
leather  was  discontinued,  probably,  about  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 

'  "  Kennethi  Leges  Religiosa;,"  Spelman,  Concilia,  p.  342. 

-  Pliny,  \at.  Hist.,  lib.  vii. 

^  Bloxam,  Monunu-ntal  Architecture,  p.  22. 


History  of  the  Cross 


Stone  Coffins. 


century  ' ;  coffins  of  wood  and  stone  were  also  used,  especially  for  the 
nobility  and  higher  classes. 

The  lids  of  stone  coffins  were  raised  a  few  inches,  and  were  of  an 
angular  shape  in  the  form  known  as  en  dos  d'asnc,  the  ridges  marking  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  body  forming  a  cross.  Coped 
coffins  were  used  until  after  the  Puritan  troubles.  Examples 
are  found  as  late  as  1650,  without  the  cross,  howev-er.  The  custom  of 
using  stone  coffins  is  one  of  the  few  old  usages  which  Time  has  left  un- 
changed. Two  thousand  years  before  Christ,  the  Pharaohs  were  fashion- 
ably laid  in  their  stone  beds.  A  similar  sepulchre  is  not  unknown  in 
these  days. 

..£-- 


:•>.! 


,^i^' 


^^^r^r^ 


Stone  Coftins  with  Cross  on  ].id. 
From  Cutts's  Mamial  of  St'pukhyal  Sial's  ami  Crosses. 

Headstone  crosses  were  used  about  A.D.  950,  and  continued  until. the 
Reformation,^  when,  with  many  churchyard  crosses  in  England,  they 
„     ,   .  were  destroyed  I)\-  the  wanton  sacrilege  of  the  Puritans.     In 

Head-stone  J  -  ^ 

Crosses.  j-]^^.  jslaiid   of   loiia  there  were  formerly  three   luuulrcci  and 

si-xty,    of   which   onl\-  three   remain,    two   of    which    are   churchyard,    or 

'  The  remains  of  the  Empress  Maud,  who  died  tifiy  and  was  buried  at  the  Abbey  of  Bee, 
were  found  in  1282,  wrapped  in  an  ox-hide.     Bloxam,  Monumeutal  Artltilecttire,  p.  55. 
'  Cutts,  Manual  of  Sepulchral  Slabs  and  Crosses,  p.  48. 


Mortuary  and  Burial  Crosses 


OJ 


37 


memorial,  crosses,  respectively  called  Maclean's  and  S.  Martin's  crosses. 
They  are  twelve  or  fourteen  feet  high,  and  the  first  is  said  to  be  the  one 
referred  to  by  Adamnanus  in  his  life  of  S.  Columba.  This  saint  visited 
the  island  in  the  sixth  centur)-,  but  the  date  of  the  monument  is 
unknown.'     The  earliest  crosses  which  have  been  preserved  are  of  stone, 


Stone  Coffin-Lids. 
From  lioutell's  Christian  Monumcnti  in  England  and  Wales. 

but  wood  has  been  used  from  the  time  of  their  first  erection.  Some  old 
wooden  ones  are  yet  standing  in  Normandy,  and  that  material  is  still 
used  by  Russians.      In  the  latter  country  the  crosses  are  of ,,,     .     _  „^^,^ 

J  J  Wooden  Crosses 

the  Greek  crenulated  form.      On  one  side  is  the  name  of  the  '"  R"^^'^- 

deceased,  who  is  styled  "  a  servant  of  God";  the  inscription,  "  In  the 
name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,"  followed 

'  Billings,  Ami,],  of  Scotland,  "  lona  "  ;  Montalembert,  Monks  of  the  West,  vol.  iii.,  p.  464. 


History  of  the  Cross 


by  some  pious  expression,  such  as  "  Eternal  memory  to  thee,"  "  Peace 
to  thy  remains,"  "  The  eternal  kingdom  to  thee,"  "  Salvation  to  thy 
soul,"  etc..   while  some  conspicuous  part  of  the  monument  bears  the 

petition,  "  Good  Christians  are  entreated  to  pray  for  the  soul  of . "  ' 

When  the  Russians  quitted  the  Island  of  Guernsey,  in  1800,  they  left 
more  than  fifty  such  crosses  in  their  burial-ground,  which  the  islanders, 
with  a  spirit  worthy  of  Cromwell's  soldiers,  irre\-erently  used  for  firewood." 


Stone  Coffin-I.iiis. 
From  Boutell's  Cliristian  Monuments  in  England  and  Wales. 

In  the  west  of  Greece  crosses  are  frequently  of  the  form  represented  in 
the  engraving  (sec  pas:c  ^40).     In  the  middle  is  a  square 

In  Greece.  &  f»    l  /     iS      .'T    y  -i 

lioUow,  with  a  door,  in  which  on  festivals  a  lamp  is  placed.^ 
In  Sils  in  the  Tyrol,  the  crosses  arc  usually   of   metal,  tall  and  ilori- 
atcd,  with  holy-water  stoups  suspended  from  them.' 
Monumental  Among  tlic  most  bcautiful  of  mortuary  crosses  are  Mon- 

Brasscs.  umcntal  Brasses. 

'  Ne.ile.  I/ist.  of  F.asleyn  Church,  "  Alexandria,"  vol.  i.,  p.  223. 
'  Britton,  Architcclural  Antiquities,  vol.  i.,  p.  ()i,  note. 
'  Neale,  Hist.  Eastern  Church,  vol.  i.,  p.  223. 
■*  Webb,  Continental  Ecclesiology,  p.  180. 


MortLuiry  and  iiurial  Crosses 


339 


Incised  Crosses. 


Lont(  previous  to  the  use  of  metal,  the  cross  was  graven  ujion  the 
tombs  in  the  Catacombs,  from  the  first  to  the  fifth  century,  as  may  be 
seen  on  the  slabs  pre- 
served in  the  Lapidariaii 
Gallery  at  Rome.  Ireland  probably 
affords  the  next  oldest  instance,  S. 
Brecan's  stone  being  of  the  early 
part  of  the  sixth  century.  In  the 
course  of  time  the  incised  work  was 
filled  in  with  lead,  or  composition; 
but  as  these  materials  were  not  dur- 
able, and  the  raised  copestones  were 
inconvenient  in  churches,  at  length 
was  originated  the  slab  inlaid  with 
brass  or  latten  (a  mixed  metal  re- 
sembling that  used  for  faucets), some- 
times called  Cologne,  or,  by  con- 
traction, cullen  plate,  although  it 
appears  to  have  been  brought  first 
from  Flanders.   The  earliest  form  was 

the  enamelled  work  of  Limoges,  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century. 
The  simplest  form  was  the  old  Lombardic  slab,  a  flat  stone  with  an  in- 
cised marginal   legend.     The  Cross  was  usually  depicted  with  floriated 


Headstone  Cross  in  lona. 


Cross  on  Headstones. 
From  Cutts's  Manual. 


arms,  the  stem  resting  upon  a  calvary,  or  inserted  in  the  mouth  of  a 
dragon,  emblematizing  the  power  of  the  Cross  over  Satan.  The  orna- 
mentation of  the  crosses  increased  with  the  development  of  architecture. 
Above  the  Cross    was  placed   the    head,    or   part-length    figure,   of  the 


340 


History  of  the  Cross 


deceased,  enclosed  in  a  quatrefoil;  this  finally  became  a  full-length  figure, 
clad  in  sacerdotal  robes,  or  armor,  according  to  the  profession  of  the 
deceased,  and  finally  usurped  the  place  of  the 
Cross.  When  the  cross  was  used,  it  exhibited  the 
fertility  of  the  invention  of  the  old  masters.  No 
two  devices  were  alike,  and  some  were  so  richly 
loaded  with  ornament  as  almost  to  conceal  the 
cross,  except  to  the  eye  of  mediaeval  faith. 

The  earliest  recorded  example  of  a  Brass  in 

England  is  that   of  Simon  de    Beauchamp,   Earl 

'r^^?^^'':'?^'^'^^^:-^'--'"  of  Bedford,  who  died   before    iJo8.      Several  are 

Grecian  Headstones.  Earliest  and  extant      of     the     year      I277.  The 

From  Neale's  j^/j/yr^  (7////.-  Latest  Examples,    earliest     CrOSS     WaS    that    ot     Bishop 
Holy  Eastern  Church.  ,,.        ,  ,  ,.      ,  ,  ,         .     ,  , 

Bingham,  wlio  died  1247,  and  was  buried  on  the 
north  side  of  Salisbury  Cathedral.  The  latest  example  known  is  at  S. 
Mary's,  Croy,  Kent,  1776.  From  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century 
the  art  declined,  and  became  utterly  degenerate  in  the  sixteenth. 

The  value  of  the  brass  tempted  the  Puritans  during  the  Reformation 
and  the  Rebellion  ;  hence  the  number  destroyed  and  irrevocably  lost  to 
Christian  art  is  immense.  As  late  as  161 2,  York  Minster  contained  one 
hundred  and  twenty  brasses,  of  which  only  one  now  exists.  Still,  there 
are  more  than  four  thousand  remaining'  to  attest  the  skill  and  piety 
born  in  the  so-called  Dark  Ages.  Pre\'ious  to  the  Revolution  many  ex- 
amples existed  in  France,  but  even  the  indents,  or  matrices, 

In  France, 

North  Germany,  ofthcmcaiinot  HOW  bc  fouiid.      Nortli  Germany  and   Bel- 

andBelgium.  .  i  t     i  i  i  ■  i 

gium  still  possess  some  beautiiul  examples,  but  in  other 
parts  of  Europe  they  have  been  destroyed,  or  are  hidden  in  a  few  private 
chapels  of  the  higher  classes. 

Connected  with  the  suljject  of  monumental  crosses  is  that  of  monu- 
mental effigies,  which  are  represented  with  the  legs  crossed.  It  has  been 
conjectured    that    this  attitude   was   iiiteiulcd    to   tlistinguish   the  actual 

crusader  and  those  who  vowed  to  engage  in  the  holy  wars, 

Cross-legged  '^    '^  ^ 

Monumental         but  had  been  prevented  by  death  from  fulfilling  their  vows. 

Effigies. 

The  former  are  represented  with  the  sword  sheathed;  the 

'  Walcott,  Sacred  Archaiohgy.  .'\l)Oiit  four  lliousand  are  preserved  in  England,  more  than 
exist  in  any  other  country  ;  and  these  examples  are  most  common  on  the  east  coast,  from  Kent 
to  Norfolk,  and  in  the  adjoining  counties,  Surrey.  Sussex,  Middlesex,  and  Berks  ;  but  are  rare  in 
the  north  and  west,  being  chiefly  confined  to  the  cathedral  and  conventional  churches,  as  in 
Herefordshire.     In  Ireland,  Wales,  and  Scotland  they  were  also  far  from  common. 


Head  and  Base  df  a  Monumental  Brass  Cross.     Grainthorpe  Church,  Lincohishire. 
From  Boutell's   Monumental  Brasses  of  England. 


341 


j4- 


History  of  the  Cross 


,  latter  with   it   partly  drawn   from    the   scabbard.     This  is  the  popular 
opinion,  and  is  strongly  defended  by  Fosbroke,  the  Rev.  J.   M.  Neale, 


|NS)ffiB1:e¥W©I-fe 


Brass   Effigy   of     Thomas  Cranley, 

Archliisliop  of  Dublin,  and  Warden 

of    New  College    Chapel,    Oxford. 

From  BoutcH's    A/ oiiti mental 

Brasses  of  England. 


Momimeiital  l']uit;y  i.f  a  Crusader. 
From  Cutts's  Manna  I  for  the  Study  of 
Sepulchral  Slabs  and  Crosses. 


and  others.      Bloxam  maintains  that  the  "  notion  is,  however,  but  con- 
jectural, and  can  be  traced  to  no  sufficient  authority;  and,  besides  this, 


Mortuary  and  Burial  Crosses  343 

the  cross-legged  attitude  was  retained  fur  more  tlian  lialf  a  century  after 
the  cessation  of  the  last  Crusade,  though  it  may  he  remarked  that  subse- 
quent to  the  thirteenth  century  the  instances  of  such  attitude  are  not 
very  numerous.  The  sculptors  of  these  early  effigies  certainly  seem  to 
have  been  more  intent  upon  giving  freedom  and  general  breadth  of  effect 
to  their  conii)ositions  than  elaborate  execution  or  high  finish  of  detail, 
although  they  were  by  no  means  deficient  in  the  Litter;  and  on  referring 
to  the  efTigies  of  this  era,  it  will  be  observed  that  where  the  legs  appear 
crossed,  the  surcoat  opens  in  front,  and  the  drapery  falls  on  each  side  in 
free  and  graceful,  flowing  lines;  and  by  such  disposition  a  degree  of  light- 
ness and  elegance  was  often  attained,  \\-hich  the  heavy  and  constrained 
folds  of  the  surcoat,  when  the  legs  were  straight,  did  not  admit  of.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  when  the  cyclas,  a  shorter  and 
closer-bodied  surcoat,  was  worn,  this  attitude  became  less  frequent;  and 
the  final  discontinuance  of  the  cross-legged  attitudes  may  be  traced  to 
about  the  period  that  the  cyclas  was  discarded,  and  the  defensive  armor 
was  chiefly  composed  of  plate."  ' 

We  have  but  glanced  at  this  part  of  the  subject,  which  would  occupy- 
too  much  space  to  treat  of  fully;  but  those  who  are  interested  will  find 
no  difficulty  in  consulting  manv  able  and  elaborate  treatises  which  have 
appeared  during  the  last  half-century." 

'  Bloxam,  Montimcnial  Architecture,  p.  137. 

'  The  most  easy  of  reference  are  ;  E.  L.  Cutts,  Manual  of  Monumental  Slabs  and  Brasses  ; 
Chas.  Boutell,  Christian  Monuments,  and  his  Monumental  Brasses  of  England,  etc. 


T 


CHAPTER  XX 

CHURCHYARD   CROSSES 

HERE  is  one  emblem,   perfectly  unobjectionable,  perfectly  ap- 
propriate,  full  of   solemnity,   full  of  consolation,   which  raises 
hope,  and   dries  the   tear,    and  turns  mourning  into  grati- 

Reasons  for  the 

Churchyard         tude ;    which  while  it  reminds  us  that  we  are  sinners,   re- 

Cross. 

minds  us  of  the  means  of  pardon;  which,  while  it  shows 
us  the  penalt}'  of  sin,  and  thereby  humbles  us  to  the  dut^t,  at  the  same 
time  cheers  with  the  thought  of  Him  who  paid  the  penalty;  Who  rose 
triumphant  from  the  grave.  Who  is  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life,  Who 
will  change  our  vile  bodies,  and  raise  them  from  the  dust,  Who  hath 
hallowed  the  grave  and  gate  of  death  into  the  passage  of  immortality ; 
and  Who  having  Himself  overcome  the  sharpness  of  death,  hath  opened 
the  Kingdom  of  Heaven  to  all  believers.  That  emblem,  I  need  scarcely 
say,  is  the  Cross."  ' 

Thus  writes  a  true-hearted  son  of  the  Church  in  our  mother-land. 
And  one  of  our  noble  band  of  Fathers  in  God,  speaking  of  those  by 
whom  this  blessed  symbol  was  early  used  in  sepulture,  of  those  who 
were  driven  to  worship  God  in  the  holes  and  caves  of  the  earth,  the  per- 
secuted Christians  of  Rome  who  met  together  in  the  Catacombs  to  cele- 
brate the  sacrifice  of  their  crucified  Lord,  says:  "  By  far  the  larger 
proportion  [of  sepulchral  memorials]  refer  to  the  profession  of  Christian- 
ity and  those  hopes  which  had  so  lately  dawned  u]ion  them,  and  lived 
beyond  the  narrow  grave  which  they  had  depri\-ed  of  its  terrors.  Of 
these  we  naturally  turn  first  to  the  Cross,  the  primal  symbol  of  Christ- 
ianity, because  it  is  the  one  most  generally  used.  This  emblem  of  our 
common  faith  is  everywhere  to  be  seen.  Although  so  lately  invested 
with  the  most  humiliating  associations,  to  the  early  Christians  it  became 

*  Paget,  A    'I'ract  upon   Tombstpni's^  p.  22. 
344 


Churchyard  Crosses 


345 


at  once  a  mark  of  dignity  and  lioiKjr.  Unlike  but  too  many  who,  in  tliis 
day,  bear  that  holy  name  which  was  first  assumed  at  Antioch,  tliey 
gloried  in  the  Cross.  They  used  it  as  an  emblem  on  all  occasions  during 
life — for  with  them  the  Cross  explained  everything — and  it  consecrated 
their  tombs  when  tlie  conflict  of  life  was  over,  and  they  had  exchanged 
it  for  the  crown. "  ' 

But  to  the  saints  of  those 
days,  trembling  with  fear  lest 
their  worship  should  be  discov- 
ered, obliged  to  conceal  under 
symbolic  representations  the 
portraiture  of  truths  so  precious 
to  those  downtrodden  ones — to 

them  the  Cross  was  a  token  of  triumph  and  of  joy.  The  inscription 
which  startled  tlie  Roman  Emperor  Constantine  was  an  old  familiar  truth 
to  them.     Their  life  here  was  one  of  constant  care  and  watchfulness; 

their  death  the  ushering  of  them 


Inscription  in  Cataconilib. 
From  Kips  Catacombs  of  Rontc. 


>—  ^  QUIESCTT  IN  PACE 

(^  lANUARJUS  ^  VJXIT  A 

Inscription  in  Catacombs. 
From  Kip's  Catacombs  of  Rome. 


into  a  new  life  of  peace  and  tri- 
umph: so  e\"en  the  bitter  instru- 
ment of  torture  bore  as  clearly 
to  their  eyes  as  to  those  of  Con- 
stantine the  Divine  assurance,  "  By  this  zve  conquer." 

Hence  we  cannot  wonder  to  find  the  Cross  in  the  graveyard,  hallow- 
ing the  rest  of  all  who  slept  beneath  its  shadow,  and  a  token  of  victory 
over  the  last  enemy. 

Churchyard  crosses  have,  necessarily,  already  been  touched  upon 
when  treating  of  Preaching,  Memorial,  Sanctuary,  and  other  standard 
crosses.  As  the  Cross  was  erected  to  be  a  gathering  point  for  the  con- 
gregation, so  it  was  retained  for  divers  sacred  reasons  after  the  building 
was  in  course  of  time  erected.  Puritanism  in  England,  and  infidelity 
on  the  Continent  of  Europe  have  destroyed  most  of  them;  still  some  few 
remain.      How  the  pious  generations    of  by-gone  ages  re- 

'  *=■  .f    &  &  Every  Church  to 

garded  them    may  be    learned,    not    only    from  their  uses    haveachurch- 

yard  Cross. 

already  noticed,  but  by  the  carefulness    with    which    each 

church  was  provided  with  one.      In  the  constitution  of  William  Bleys.  .\.D. 

1229,  it   is  directed  that  a  handsome  cross  be  erected  in  every  church- 

'  Hishop  Kip,  Catacombs  of  Rome,  p.  107. 


346 


History  of  the  Cross 


CciiictL-r\  ' 'ruN^  at  Sailla't^  (.\\'I  (\iilui\). 
From  Droiiyn's  Cioi.i  tJi'  /'rocission,  tie 
Cimelieres  el  dc  Cayrcfours, 


yard,    to    which    a    procession    sliall 

be   made    every    Pahn    Sunday,    on 

which    festival    it    was 

Palm  Cross. 

decorated  with  pahns, 
and  hence  it  is  sometimes  called  the 
Palm  Cross.  It  \\as  usually  placed 
near  the  south  entrance. 

As  some  of  the  principal  church- 
yard crosses  in  Great  Britain  have 
been  already  noticed  under  other 
heads,  a  description  of  a  few  of  the 
less  known  in  France  are  given." 
Other  examples  might  be  cited,  but 
man}-  are  of  the  Renaissance,  or  de- 
based order  of  architecture,  and  are 
of  but  little  interest  except  to  local 
historians. 

The  cross  of  the  cemetery  of  Sail- 
lans.  Canton  of  Fronsac,  sixteenth 
century,  is,  of  all  those  of  the  De- 
partment of  the  Gironde,  the  best 
preserved.  It  is  divid- 
ed into  three  distinct 
parts.  I.  A  square  base  sunk  in 
the  herbage  of  the  cemetery,  and  in 
which  is  the  table  of  the  altar. 
J.  A  round  shaft,  against  which  are 
statuettes  and  ornaments.  3.  A 
cross  ornamented  with  floriations  and 
statuettes.  The  shaft  is  divided  in- 
to four  horizontal  stages,  separated 
virtually  by  four  ]Mlasters  with  clo- 
chctons  mounting  to  the  height  of  the 
fourth  stage,  separated  from  the  rest 
by  a   saillautc   moulding.     Between 

'  Comlenscfl  from  Leo  Drouyn,  His  laii- 
p;iia£^c  lias  beeti  jireserved  in  an  almost  literal 
translation. 


Cross  at 
Saillans 


Churchyard  Crosses 


347 


these  pilasters  stand  in  the  inferior  stage  four  cohimns,  whose  capitals 
serve  as  consoles  to  four  statuettes,  which  form  the  second  stage.  They 
are  surmounted  by  canopies;  on  these  still  rise,  in  the  third  stage,  four 
other  statuettes.  The  lower 
represent,  1st,  to  the  north- 
east (the  Cross  is  oriented  to- 
wards the  summer  solstice), 
S.  Magdalene,  holding  in  the 
left  hand  the  vase  of  per- 
fumes, and  in  the  right  her 
long  hair,  as  prepared  to  per- 
fume the  feet  of  Jesus  Christ. 
2d,  to  the  southeast,  S.  An- 
tony, holding  a  hammer  (Tau 
cross  ?)  in  the  right  hand, 
and  a  small  bell  in  the  left. 
3d,to  the  southwest,  S.  Cath- 
arine ;  a  crown  flcurdelise'e 
ornaments  her  head,  her  right 
hand  is  armed  with  a  sword, 
and  her  left  hand  holds  a 
book.  The  wheel  of  torture 
is  at  her  feet.  4th,  to  the 
northwest,  S.  John  the  Bap- 
tist, covered  with  his  costume 
of  camel's  hair;  he  holds  a 
lamb  in  his  right  hand.  The 
superior  statuettes  represent : 
1st,  to  the  northeast,  S.  Pe- 
ter, whose  head  is  coifed  with 
the  tiara ;  he  bears  the  keys. 
2d,  to  the  southeast,  the  an- 
gel Gabriel,  holding  a  flower 
in  his  left  hand,  and  blessing 
with   his    right.      3d,    to  the 

southwest,  S.  Paul,   the  right  Cemetery  Cross  at  MarcUac.         ^ 

From  Drouyn  s  Croix  de  Procession,  de  Cimetieres  et  ae 

hand    armed   with   a    sword.  Carrcfours. 


34^ 


History  of  the  Cross 


4th,  to  the  northwest,  S.  Michael,  in  a  coat  of  mail,  liolds  the  dragon  in 
chains.  Between  S.  Michael  and  S.  Paul  is  an  escutcheon,  on  which  we 
read  the  date  of  the  monument,  1543;  and  this  proves  that  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixteenth  century  monuments  in  France  were  still  made  in  the 
style  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

These  eight  statuettes  are  almost  completely  detaclied  from  the  shaft 
of  the  cross.  The  symbols  of  the  Evangelists  which  cover  the  fourth 
stage  are  only  sculptured  in  bas-relief.     Above  rises  the  cross  properly 

speaking.      It  is  very  elegant,  and  covered  with 
'-■^"^     -^ ""-'-'■— ^  rich  ornaments  of  the  Gothic  decadence.   The 

extremities  of  the  branches  were  ornamented 
witli  large  fioriations  in  curled  Icax'es  forming 
an  angel's  head;  one  only  of  the  motives  is 
complete,  the  others  have  been  in  part  broken. 
To  the  west  is  a  crucifix,  the  figure  having 
around  the  waist  a  simple  band  of  cloth  ;  its 
feet  are  attached  witli  a  single  nail,  and  a 
death's-head  is  beneath  the  feet.  To  the  east 
is  S.  Seurin,  the  patron  of  the  parish ;  beholds 
a  cross  in  the  left  hand,  and  blesses  with  the 
right.  If  the  cross  had  more  breadth,  this 
monument,  which  is  but  slightly  injured,  would 


vp     be    a   masterpiece    of    composition;    but    the 

— !'f(W     statuettes,  which  form  the  principal  decoration, 

■■'2'-^'?s^     are  designed  in  the  most  deplorable  manner, 

and  in   this  respect   it   is   much   inferior  to  the 

crosses  of  S.  Projet  and  of  Marcillac. 

Cross  at  Cleorget.  . 

„       ^         ,  ^    ■    ,    „  We    have  only  room  to   notice    briefly  the 

r  rom  Drowyii 'r^Crotx  at'  r^rocesston,  •'  ^ 

de  Cimeiurcs  ct  dc  Carre/ours,     latter  of  these  crosses,  wlilcli,  although  muti- 
lated, \ct,  owing  to  its  happy  proportions  and  to 
-         .  the  number  and  beautv  of  its  sculi)tures,  is  regarded  bv  M. 

Cross  01  ,  i  o  . 

Marcillac.  Leo  Drouyii  as  the  most  notahle  in  the  Department  of  tlie 

Gironde.  The  base  need  not  be  described.  A  modern  altar  will  be 
seen  on  the  pedestal,  to  which  some  of  the  statues  have  been  sacrificed. 
Canopies  shelter  the  images,  and  support  them  on  the  next  stage.  The 
four  in  the  lower  series  are  S.  Peter,  S.  James,  .S.  Jdlin,  and  -S.  .Andrew. 
In  the  next  abo\'e,  one  is  so  mutilated  that  it  c.innot  be  determined  who 


Churchyard  Crosses  349 

is  represented;  the  others  are  S.  Laurence,  S.  Vincent,  and  an  unknown 
bishop.  Above  are  statuettes  of  female  saints,  only  one  of  whom,  S. 
Catharine,  still  retains  her  symbol.  The  drapery  of  all  has  been  e.v- 
quisite,  and  probably  all  carried  their  distinctive  symliols.  The  height 
of  the  cross  above  the  modern  base  is  fourteen  and  a  half  feet.' 

'  Drouyn's  paper  on   Processional,  Cimctcrv,  and  Wnysidc   Crosses.      Read  before  the   Im- 
perial Academy  of  ISordeaux,  1S5S.     PI.  viii.,  tig.  3  ;  x.,  tig.  i. 


PART  111 


CHAPTER   I 

VARIETIES   OF   THE    CROSS 

THE  writers  on  the  Cross  in  the  seventeentli  century,  Lipsius, 
Gretscr,  Bosius,  Sahnasius,  etc.,  recognized  three  varieties  from 
which  all  the  others  have  sprung.  The  crux  cominissa.  Three  Primary 
so  called  from  the  transverse  being  on  the  top  of  the  up- 
right, T,  the  form  already  described  as  the  Tau  cross ;  the  crux  dccussa, 
divided  like  the  letter  X,  familiarly  known  as  the  S.  Andrew's  cross;  and 
the  crux  iiiunissa,  -|- ,  the  Latin  or  long  cross.  A  fourth  form,  where 
the  arms  are  equal,  is  the  Greek  cross,  -f.  The  first  three,  together 
with  the  Pall  or  yoked  cross,  Y,  resembling  a  tree  with  branches,  to 
which  the  arms  of  the  sufferer  were  attached,  were  used  as  the  actual 
instruments  of  suffering. 

The  earliest  form  of  the  cross  is  the  Tau,  the  anticipatory  cross,  the 
typical  cross,  the  cross  of  the  Old  Testament ;  that  with  four  branches 
is  the  true  Cross,  the  Cross  of  Christ,  the  Cross  of  the  Gospel.  "  The 
virtue  of  the  cross  in  Tau  was  derived  solely  from  the  cross  with  four 
branches;  it  was  like  a  planet  having  no  light  in  itself,  but  receiving  all 
its  splendor  from  the  Sun  of  the  Gospel."  '  "  And  observe,"  says 
Durandus,  "that  the  Cross  is  divided  into  four  parts;  whether  on 
account  of  the  four  elements,  polluted  through  our  sin  and  healed  by 
the  passion  of  Christ;  or  by  reason  of  men;  whom  Clirist  draws  to  Him- 
self from  the  four  parts  of  the  world,  according  to  His  own  prophecy. 
And  T  if  I  be  lifted  up  from  the  earth,  will  draw  all  men  unto  me  '  (S. 
John,  xii.  32).  These  four  parts  may  relate  to  the  human  soul;  the 
Cross  is  lofty,  long,  large,  and  deep.  The  depth  is  in  the  foot  which  is 
buried  in  the  earth;  the  length  is  from  the  root  to  the  arms ;  the  breadth 
extends  with  the  arms  ;  the  height  is  from  the  arms  to  the  head.      The 

'  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  374. 
353 


354 


History  of  the  Cross 


depth  signifies  faith  planted  on  a  sure  foundation;  the  height  is  hope, 
having  its  resting-place  in  heaven;  the  breadth,  charity,  extending  even 
to  the  left,  or  our  enemies;  the  length,  perseverance,  which  continues, 
or  is  without  limit."  ' 

All  varieties  of  the  Cross  with  four  limbs  spring  from  the  two  princi- 
pal types,  the  Latin  and  the  Greek.     The  realistic  Romans  preferred  an 
image  of  the  actual,  literal  cross;  the  more  idealistic  Greeks 

Greek  and  Latin.  ^  .    , 

transformed  the  instrument  of  punishment  into  a  symbol. 
These  forms  were  not  at  first  confined  respectively  to  the  two  Churches 
from  which  they  now  derive  their  names.  The  most  ancient  Greek 
Christian  sculptures  contain  crosses  with  arms  of  unequal  length.  Goar's 
Rilua/c  presents  the  icons  of  SS.  Methodius,  Germanus,  and  Cyrillus," 

whose  garments  are  adorned  with  Latin 
crosses.  The  Church  of  the  Holy  Apos- 
tles of  Constantinople  was  built  with  a 
na\'e  longer  than  the  transepts,  according 
to  Procopius,  that  it  might  gi\'e  more 
exactly  the  form  of  a  cross.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  Italy,  Greek  crosses  upon  sar- 
cophagi, pillars,  altars,  even  in  the  Cata- 
combs, testify  to  the  use  by  the  Western 
Church  of  the  symbol  of  the  East.  In 
time,  however,  influenced  probably  by 
Cross  Quartered  with  the  Four  Gospels,    ^j^^  ^-^^^^^  feelings  resulting  from  the  Sep- 

From  a  fresco  in  the  Catacombs. 

From  Didron's  Christian  Iconography,    aration    between    these    two   branches  of 

the   Church,  the    Greek  Church,  actuated 


'  Durandus,  Ralionalc  J' Off.,  HI),  v.,  cap.  2.  The  imagery  is  derived  from  S.  .Vugusline, 
whose  language  is  still  more  beautiful.  "  .-\nd  yet  we  rightly  understand  to  be  required  by  it 
(/.  e.,  the  Cross)  that  which  the  apostle  saith,  '  What  is  the  Ijreadth  and  length,  and  height  and 
depth.  It  is  broad  namely  in  the  Cross  on  which  the  hands  of  the  suspended  are  stretched  forth, 
and  signifies  good  works  in  the  breadth  of  charity  ;  it  is  long,  from  the  cross-beam  to  the  ground, 
where  the  back  and  feet  are  fixed,  and  signifies  perseverance  in  length  of  time  even  unto  the  end  ; 
it  is  high  in  the  top  part,  which  rises  upward  from  the  cross-beam,  and  signifies  the  supernal  end 
to  which  all  works  are  referred  ;  because  all  that  in  bre.idth  and  length  are  well  and  perseveringly 
done,  are  to  be  done  with  a  regard  to  the  height  of  the  Divine  rewards  ;  it  is  deep  in  that  part 
which  is  fixed  in  the  earth,  for  there  it  is  hidden  and  cannot  be  seen,  howbeit  all  that  is  apparent 
and  eminent  arises  thence,  just  as  our  good  things  do  one  and  all  proceed  from  the  depth  of  the 
grace  of  Cod,  which  cannot  be  comprehended  and  judged." — Horn.,  cxviii.  in  S.  John,  sec.  5. 
Bishop  Hall  uses  the  same  similes,  but  comjiares  the  foot  of  the  Cross  to  the  faith  rooted  upon 
grace  and  mercy  (scr.  xxx). 

'  Guar,  Kituale  Gracorum,  pji.  114,  115,  126. 


Varieties  of  the  Cross 


355 


somewhat  by  tlic  conservative  principle  whicli  lias  cliaracterizcd  her, 
confined  herself  more  exclusively  to  that  form  now  considered  peculiarly 
her  own,  while  the  Latin  Church  has  become  equally  exclusive.  That 
this  feeling  did  not  belong  to  the  early  Christians  of  Rome  may  be  seen 
from  the  accompanying  engraving  taken  from  the  Catacombs.  Didron 
interprets  the  Cross  as  symbolizing  Christ,  the  books,  the  four  Evan- 
gelists.' 

A  form  rarely  seen  except  in  heraldry  is  that  in  which  the  foot  and 
head  are  of  equal  length,  and  longer  than  the  transverse  arms.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  Armenian  cross,  but  is  only  a  variation 

Armenian  Cross. 

of  the  Creek. 

The  simple  Latin  cross,  free  from  floriation  or  ornament,  is  known  as 
the  Cross  of  Suffering  or  Passion.  It  represents  the  actual  gibbet  altar 
upon  which  the  atonement  was  offered  and  ought  never  to         „         ,.. 

^  o  Cross  of  the 

be  used  except  when   the  s[)ecial  direct   reference  is  to  the  Passion, 

sacrifice.  Hence  in  architecture  it  is  strictly  appropriate  (in  our  humble 
opinion)  only  over  the  rood 
screen,  because,  as  the  nave 
symbolizes  the  Church 
Militant,  and  the  chancel 
the  Church  Triumphant, 
so  the  chancel  arch  (over 
which  the  Doom  was  for- 
merly painted)  or  rood- 
gate,  typifies  death. 
Hence  the  appropriateness 
of  the  severe,  simple  sym- 
bol of  our  trust,  in  passing 
that  portal. 

The  Resurrection  or 
Triumphal  cross  is  a  sim- 
ple shaft  crossed  at  the 
top,  the  crux 

The  Resurrection 

longa,    ox  lias-  or  Triumphal 

,  f.  Cross. 

ta  loiiga,  from 


which  floats  a  banner. 


Christ,  Armed  with  the  Cross  of  Resurrection,  Descending 
into  Limbo.     From  Didrou's  Christian  Iconography. 


Didron,  Christ.  Icon.    vol.  i.,  p.  391. 


356  History  of  the  Cross 

Christ  bears  it  in  his  liand,  liis  standard  of  power,  when  represented 
as  the  conqueror  over  death  and  Hell.  Hence  in  the  first  instance  wlien 
descending  into  Hades,  he  opens  the  gates  of  woe  with  a  touch  of  the 
Cross,  and  our  first  parents  and  the  saints  are  delivered  while  the  devils 
howl  and  gnash  their  teeth  in  impotent  rage.  In  the  last  instance,  when 
rising  from  the  tomb,  our  Lord  bears  aloft  his  triumphant  banner  towards 
heaven. 

There  is  a  beautiful  tradition  concerning  the  Cross  of  Triumph,  re- 
corded by  S.  Ambrose  as  extant  in  his  day.  The  blessed  Virgin  was 
J   r...        alone  with  her  wrief  in  her  chamber.      Open  before  her  was 

Legend  of  the  ^  ^ 

Triumphal  Cross.  ^]-,^^  volume  of  the  propliecics,  some  of  which  she  had  seen 
fulfilled,  hence,  not  hopeless  or  unbelieving,  she  prayed, — "  Thou  didst 
promise,  O  my  most  dear  Son,  that  Thou  wouldst  rise  again  on  the 
third  day.  Before  yesterda}-  was  the  day  of  darkness  and  bitterness, 
and,  behold,  this  is  the  third  day.  Return  then  to  me.  Thy  Mother; 
O  my  Son,  tarry  not,  but  come."  And  lo!  there  appeared  a  company 
of  angels  singing  Jif^'-i/n?  Civ/i  Urtarc,  Allclitia  !  and  the  patriarchs  and 
prophets  released  from  Hades,  and  Christ  bearing  liis  standard  of  victory 
over  Sin  and  Death.' 

This  banner  cross  is  that  jiroperly  borne  by  the  Paschal  lamb,  or  by 
the  woman,  symbolical  of  the  Church  in  art,  and  must  be  distinguished 
Crosses  Borne  by  from  that  Carried  b\-  S.  John  Baptist.  This  last  is  a  reed 
the  Lamb,  ^^^^  j.]^^  bauucr  is  attached  not  to  the  staff  but  to  the  trans- 

\Voman,  and 

s- •I°''"-  verse.     The  distinction  is  not  always  observed. 

Upon  the  gold  coins  of  the  elder  and  younger  Theodosius,  and  of 

several  other  Greek  emperors,  appears  a  cross  \\\X\\   two  transoms  ;  and 

there  are  ancient  crosses  of  this  fashion.     The  ujjper  bar  is 

Double-barred 

Patriarchal  merely  the  board  or  title,  placed  by   Pilate's  order  above 

the  head  of  our  Saviour.  It  was  a  common  form  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  and  ma}'  be  seen  on  some  Byzantine  monuments.  In 
one  of  the  illuminations  in  a  Greek  manuscri[)t  in  the  \'atican,  the  Re- 
deemer, uprising  from  the  toml),  bears  the  double-barred  cross." 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  being  chosen,  by  the  Cru- 
saders, the  first  Christian  King  of  Jerusalem,  adopted  this  Cross;  hence 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  Lonaine,  or  Jerusalem   cross";  it  was  adopted 

'  Jameson,  Legends  of  the  Madonna^  p.  299.  ■'  D'Agincourt,  Pdntiiif,  ]>1.  Ivii. 

'  This  must  not  be  confounded  \vil]i  tlie  jiroper  Jerusalem  cross,  for  which  see  iiifi\',  I'art  iii., 
chap.  ii. 


Variclics  of  the  Cross 


357 


Lorraine  or  Jerusalem  Cross. 


also  by  the  Order  of  the    KniLjhts    Tcinplars,   uliicli   was  establislicd  in 
1 1 19. 

Sometimes  the  foot  of  the  Lorraine  cross 
terminates  in  acanthus  leaves,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  convent  of  S.  Laura  on  Mount  Athos. 
Some  have  erroneously  supposed  that  the  Cross 
of  Christ  is  here  represented  as  triumphant  over  i_ 
the  crescent  of  Mahomet,  l^ut  crosses  of  this 
shape  existed  long  before  the  time  of  the  false 
prophet,  eveninthe  reign  of  Justinian.  Some- 
times it  is  called  the  rooted  cross,  but  it  ap- 
pears to  be  only  a  development  or  ornamenta- 
tion of  the  cross  and  anchor,  which  symbol  is 
often  met  with  in  the  Catacombs. 

Another  variet_\'  of  the  Cross  is  the  trijile- 
barred,  or  with  three  transverse  beams,  which 
was    adopted    as    a    mark    of    special    distinction    above    the    single    or 

double-  barred.  While  the 
double  crosses  are  used  by  car- 
dinals and  archbishops  as  a  me- 
dium of  hierarchi-   ^  ■  ,   .       , 

Triple-barred  or 

cal  distinction,  the  Papai  cross. 
Pope  alone  is  entitled  to  the 
triple  cross.' 

A  form  of  the  Cross  pecu- 
liar to  the  Greek  and  Russian 
Churches  presents  an  oblique 
suppcdaucimi.  The 

Greek  or  Russian 

reason  assigned  is,  cross  with 

Suppedaneum. 

that     one    foot  of 
the    Saviour,    when    suffering, 
was  drawn  higher  than  the  oth- 
er.      It  is  natural    to    suppose 

Greek  Cross,  with  Double  Cross /XrmsfXIth  Cell-       that    in    the  agony    of    the    nail- 
tury).      From  Didron's  C/tnstiat:  Iconography.  jng  tO  the  CrOSS,  onc  limb  should 

be  retracted,  while  the  other  was  being  fastened.      But  as  we   have  seen 
in  the  actual  Crucifixion  no  footstool  was  used. 

'  See  Part  ii.,  chap.  vii. 


558 


History  of  the  Cross 


The  inhabited  cross  is  an  ancient  variety  of  this  symbol,  described  by 
Dante  in  his  Divina  Coinuicdia,  printed  in  Florence  in  1491.'  This  cross 
_.    ,  K  V, .  ^      is  resplendent  with  a  "lory  far  more  radiant  than  the  suns 

The  Inhabited  ^  &        y 

Cross  of  Dante.    ^^^^   constellations   of   every   kind   which   blaze    around   it. 
Arri\'ing  with  Beatrice  in  the  planet  Mars,  the  poet  exclaims: 


■%* 


l^*-^ 


.p^^^^^   ^  ^  ^   ^    h^"^ 


"  For  with  so  great  a  lustre 
and  so  red 
Splendors      apjieared     to 

me  in  twofold  rays, 
I    said  :    '  O    Helios  who 
dost  so  adorn  them  ! ' 
Even    as    distinct    with   less 
and  greater  lights 
Glimmers  between  the  two 

poles  of  tlie  world 
Tlie   Galaxy  tliat  niaketh 
wise  men  doubt. 
Thus    constellated     in     the 
depths  of  Mars, 
Those  rays  described  the 

venerable  sign 
That  quadrants  joining  in 
a  circle  make. 
Here  doth  my  memory  over- 
come my  genius  ; 
For  on  that  cross  as  levin  gleamed  forth  Christ, 
So  that  I  cannot  find  ensample  worthy  ; 
But  he  who  takes  his  cross  and  follows  Christ, 
Again  will  pardon  me  what  I  omit, 
Seeing  in  that  aurora  lighten  Christ. 
From  horn  to  liorn,  and  'twixt  the  top  and  base, 
Lights  were  in  motion,  brightly  scintillating 
As  they  together  met  and  passed  each  other'"''  ; 

Among  the  twelve  little  figures  inhabiting  the  cross,  representing 
the  souls  of  valiant  warriors,  Dante  gives  the  names  of  eight  who 
occupy  tke  arms  of  the  cross,  beginning  from  left  to  right.  These  are 
Joshua,  Judas  Maccab.-uus,  Charlemagne,  ami  Roland  in  the  left  arm; 
and  in  the  right,  Williar",  the  Concjueror,  Richard  C(t'ur  tie  Lion,  God- 
frey de  Bouillon,  and  Robert  Guiscard."  Cacciaguida,  an  ancestor  of 
the  poet,  is  one  of  tlie  four  souls,  not  named,  who  arc  kneeling  in  the 

'  Paradiso,  canto  xiv.,  1.  g4. 

'  Longfellow's  trans.,  Par.,  cinto  xiv.,  1.  [)4-iii.  '  IbiJ.,  canto  xviii.,  1.  37-48. 


Inhabited  Cross,  Florentine,  1491. 
From  Didron's  Christian  Iconography. 


Varieties  of  the  Cross  359 

stem,  and  upper  part  of  the  cross.  "  This  cross  does  not  contain  the 
Crucified  in  person,  and  yet  Dante  dechires  that  there  Christ  shone  re- 
splendent;  in  fact,  as  has  been  said,  the  Cross  is  the  symbol  of  Christ. 
Iconographically  considered,  the  Son  of  God  is  in  the  Cross,  as  He  is  in 
the  Lamb,  and  in  the  Lion;  He  is  there  hidden  under  the  semblance  of 
the  instrument  of  punishment  on  which  He  died.  The  second  Person 
of  the  Trinity  \s  figured  hy  an  infinite  number  of  different  objects;  three 
alone,  the  Lamb,  the  Lion,  and  the  Cross,  are  symbols  of  our  Lord. 
Even  the  Fish  does  not  rise  to  the  dignit}-  of  a  divine  symbol."  ' 

Most  of  the  varieties  of  the  cross  originated  in  the  fertile  imagina- 
tions of  the  mediaeval  heralds,  and  will  be  mentioned  under  their  proper 
head,  Heraldic  Crosses ;  and  yet  other  modifications  seem  to  be  rather 
more  correctly  varieties  of  the  monogram  than  of  the  cross. 

'  Didron,  Christ.  Jcon.^  vol.  i.,  p.  405. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   CROSS   IN   HERALDRY 

NO  ordinary  symbol  occupies  so  large  a  space  in  heraldry  as  the 
Cross,  and  most  appropriately,  when  we  consider  that  the  science 
originated  from  the  command  of  that  God  of  order  who  marshalled  the 
enormous  multitude  of  the  children  of  Israel,  each  under  his  own  banner, 
during  tlieir  long  journey  from  Egypt  to  the  Promised  Land.  For  we 
read:  "  And  the  Lord  spake  unto  Moses  and  unto  Aaron  saying,  Every 
man  of  the  children  of  Israel  shall  pitch  by  his  oicii  standard  zvith  the 
ensign  of  their  father's  house  "  (Num.  ii.   I,  2).' 

It  is  not  in  our  province  to  look  further  into  the  antiquity  of  a  science 
which  carries  us  back  to  the  earliest  epoch  to  which  the  annals  of  his- 
tory extend,  and  in  whispers,  faint  with  age,  still  speaks  to  us,  although 
in  a  tongue  scarcely  understood  by  the  people.  "  Heraldry,"  says  Lord 
Lindsay,  "  is,  in  fact,  the  last  remnant  of  the  ancient  Symbolism,  and  a 
legitimate  branch  of  Christian  ,\rt:  tlie  griffins  and  unicorns,  fesses  and 
chevrons,  the  very  tinctures  or  colors,  are  all  symbolical, — each  has  its 
mystic  meaning,  singly  and  in  combination,  and  thus  every  genuine  old 
coat  of  arms  preaches  a  lesson  of  chivalric  honor  and  Christian  principle 
to  those  that  inherit  it, — truths  little  sLispected  now-a-days  in  our 
Heralds'  Offices!  "" 

A  cross,"  says  Guillim,  "  is  an  onlinary  composed  of  four-fold 
Lines  whereof  two  are  Perpendicular  and  the  other  two  Transverse,  for 
Definition  of  SO  wc  must  couccivc  of  them,  though  tlie\- arc  not  drawn 
^'''°^''-  throughout,  but  meet  by  couples  in  four  right  angles,  near 

about    the    Fess-Point    of   the    Escutcheon.      This   ordinary    is   in   Latin 

'  According  to  Aben  Ezra,  the  standard  of  Jiidah  was  that  of  a  lion  ;  of  Reuben  that  of  a 
man  ;  of  Epliraim  that  of  an  ox  ;  and  of  Dan  that  of  an  eagle. 
'  Lindsay,  Lcltos  on  C/iiisliaii  Art,  vol.  ii.,  p.  4g. 

360 


The  Cross  in  Heraldry  361 


call'd  Crtix  a  cruciaiido,  or  a  cruciatcc,  from  the  Torture  of  those  who 
undergo  this  Death.  The  Content  of  a  cross  is  not  the  same  always; 
for  when  it  is  not  charg'ci,  it  lias  only  the  fifth  Part  of  the  F"ield ;  but  if 
it  be  charg'd,  then  it  must  contain  the  third  Part  thereof.  In  the  an- 
cientest  Constitution  of  the  Hearing  of  the  Cross,  without  all  Controversy 
it  had  this  l<"onn,  and  this  Hearing  was  bestowed  on  such  as  had  perform'd, 
or  at  least  undertaken,  some  service  for  Christ  and  the  Christian  Profes- 
sion, and  therefore  being  duly  consider'd  I  hold  it  the  most  honourable 
Charge  to  be  found  in  Heraldry." 

Upton  agrees  with  (juillim  in  his  estimation  of  the  Cross,  and  ad- 
duces the  following  from  S.  Chr}-sostom,  as  authority:  "  The  Cross  is 
to  us  the  cause  of  all  blessedness.  It  has  delivered  us  from  the  blind- 
ness of  error;  it  has  given  us  peace  after  being  vanquished  ;  it  has  united 
us  to  God  after  having  been  estranged  from  him  ;  it  makes  us  that  were 
pilgrims,  settled  citizens.  The  Cross  is  the  hope  of  the  Christian,  the 
resurrection  of  the  dead;  the  guide  of  the  blind,  the  life  of  those  that 
were  given  over;  the  staff  of  the  lame;  the  comfort  of  the  poor;  the 
pilot  of  sailors;  the  harbor  from  danger,  and  the  wall  of  the  besieged. 
The  Cross  has  been  translated  from  places  of  execution  to  the  foreheads 
of  Emperors." 

It  is  usual  to  trace  the  bearing  of  the  ordinary  of  the  cross  to  the 
time  of  the  Crusades,  because  about,  or  rather  immediately  after  their 
time,   according  to  Camden,   "  we  received   the  hereditary    -^  ,     ,„ 

'  ^  '  '       Date  of  Bearing 

use  of  arms,  but   which  was  not  fully  established  until  the  the  cross. 

time  of   Henry  HI.";  tradition,  however,  claims  greater  antiquity.      It 

is  said  that  Lucius,  the  first  Christian  king  of  the  Britons,  in  the  second 

century  assumed  the  Cross,  and  that  the  Cross  Saltire  (S.  Andrew's)  was 

the  device  of  Scotland  as  early  as  the  fourth  century.'     The  arms  of 

King  Arthur  are  enveloped  in  as  much  mystery  as  is  that  royal  personage 

himself,   but  getting  on   firmer  ground  we  find   the    English   sovereign, 

'  "  King  Arthur  .  .  .  toke  liys  armys  a  Crosse  of  silver  in  a  shelde  of  veste, 
and  with  that  signe  of  the  Cross,  he  dycl  many  marvels."  Third  part  of  the  Boke  of  S.  Albans, 
i486.  The  same  author,  Juliana  Berners,  refers  to  a  tradition  to  which  she  gives  pious  credence, 
which  places  the  assumption  of  the  Cross  far  earlier  :  "  Also  I  have  red  thys  signe  of  the  Cross  to 
be  sende  from  God  to  that  blessed  man  Macuri,  with  a  shelde  of  asure  and  a  cross  fluri  with  iiij 
roses  of  golde,  as  here  in  thus,  and  I  sonde  never  that  ever  any  armys  wear  sende  from  heuvyn  but 
in  them  was  the  sygne  of  the  Cros."  Ibid.,  quoted  in  DoUaway,  Inquiries  in  Heraldry,  p.  79. 
Arthur  himself  bore  three  different  devices.  Two  dragons  addorsed,  i.  e.,  back  to  back,  three 
crowns  ;  and  vert  a  cross  argent  having  in  chief  the  Virgin  and  Child.  Millington,  Heraldry  in 
Hist.,  Poet.,  and  Romance,  p.  35. 


362  History  of  the  Cross 

Egbert,  about  the  year  800,  bearing  for  his  arms  the  Cross.  His  coat  of 
arms  is  supposed  to  liave  been  the  same  as  that  of  Edward  the  Confessor 
(1040),  now,  we  beUeve,  appropriated  by  Westminster  Abbey,  i.  c, 
"  azure,  a  cross  patoncc,  between  five  martlets,  or."  Edmund  Ironside 
also  bore  these  arms  at  the  battle  of  Ashdown.  or  Assendon,  in  Essex. 
They  were  afterwards  assumed  by  Margaret,  his  granddaughter,  who 
married  Malcolm  Canmore,  King  of  Scotland.' 

That  most  of  the  crosses  used  in  heraldry  originated  in  the  Crusades 
is  probable  from  their  form ;  the  generality  of  them  being 

Eastern  Origin 

of  Heraldic  Greek  scems  to  indicate  their  Eastern   origin,   although  it 

may  have  been  chosen  as  best  adapted  to  the  shield.^ 

A  badge  was  necessary  in  the  Holy  \\'ars  to  enable  those  who  were 

strangers  in  person  and  language  to  recognize  each  other  as  allies.     The 

_  .      f..  different  nations  were  distinguished  bv  crosses  of  various 

Badge  of  the  ^ 

Crusaders.  colors.     The  Scots  bore  the  S.  Andrew's  or  Saltire  cross; 

the  French  the  cross  argent;  the  English  the  cross  or;  the  Germans  the 
cross  sable;  the  Italians  the  cross  azure,  and  the  Spaniards  the  cross 
gules.  In  the  third  Crusade  the  French  appropriated  the  cross  gules, 
the  English  the  cross  argent,  and  the  Flemings  the  cross  vert.'  These 
crosses  were  generally  of  cloth  interwoven  with  gold  or  silk  at  first,  after- 
wards of  an}'  cloth.  In  an  expedition  against  Mansfield  of  Sicily,  when 
he  was  denounced  by  Urban  IV.  and  Clement  I\'.  as  a  heretic,  the  Cross 
was  divided  in  two  colors,  red  and  white.  On  other  expeditions,  in 
distinction  from  those  to  Jerusalem,  the  Cross  was  worn  on  the  breast, 
not  on  the  right  shoulder. 

Among  the  stratagems  resorted  to  in  recruiting  for  the  Crusades,  that 

of  Philip  II.  of  France  may  be  noted.      At  Christmas  it  was  customary 

to  distribute  gifts  of  garments  among  the  courtiers.     The 

Trick  in  Recruit- 
ing for  the  King  ordered  a  large  number  of  robes  of  precious  cloth,  and 

Crusades. 

had  crosses  of  fine  goldsmith  s  work  sewed  upon  them  pri- 
vately at  night.     The  next  morning  at  Mass,  the  recipients  of  the  royal 

'  Such  is  the  story.  Millington,  Heraldry  in  History,  Poetry,  and  Homanee,  p.  36.  Grose 
and  Astle  say  :  "  The  ancient  arms  of  [Westminster]  Abbey  were  partie  per  fesse  intente,  or, 
and  azure  a  crosier  erect,  and  a  mitre  in  chief.  The  new  arms  are  partly  those  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  and  partly  those  of  Kngl.Tiid  in  chief,  or  l)etwecn  twu  red  roses." — Antiijuarian 
Kepertory,  vol.  ii.,  p.  171. 

''  To  the  Crusades  may  be  referred  the  oripn  uf  many  hemldic  terms  :  Gules,  from  Persian 
gul,  crimson.     The  furs  ermine  and  vair  were  probably  brouj^ht  home  by  the  Crusaders. 

'■^  Matthew  I'aris,  p.  146. 


The  Cross  in  Heraldry 


3(^3 


Repetition  of 
the  Cross. 


bounty   were  astonished  to   see  the   Cross  ujion   each  other's  shoulder, 
but,  perceiving  the  King's  object,  were  ashamed  to  remove  them.' 

Wlien  the  Cross  was  repeated  upon  the  armor  or  dress  it  denoted  a 
resolution  to  do  some  great  deed  of  arms.  Iteration  of  arms  always  had 
this  si;_;nificance ;  thus  Froissart,  speaking  of  Sir  John 
Chandos,  describes  him  as  dressed  in  a  large  robe  which 
fell  to  the  ground,  blazoned  with  his  arms  in  sarcenet;  argent,  a  pile, 
gules,  one  upon  his  breast,  another  on  his  back.  "  Thus  he  appeared  re- 
solved on  some  adventurous  undertaking."  ^ 

The  ingenuity  of  the  heralds  was  taxed  to  supply  the  demand  for 
variations  of  the  Cross,  and  there  were  "  Crossis  innumerabuU  born 
dayli,"  says  Juliana  Berners.  Guillim  describes  thirty-nine,  Colombiere 
ninety-six,  Edmondson  and  Berry  four  hundred  and  thirty-three.  About 
fifty  are  in  common  use. 

"  The  plain  or  S.  George's  cross,"  '  saith  worthy  old  Fuller,  "  I  take 
to  be  the  mother  of  all  the  rest;  as  plain  song  is  much 
the  senior  to  any  running  division.      Now  „  „        .  ^ 

''  »  S.  George  s  Cross 

as  by  transposition  of  a  few  letters,  a  world        ""=  Original. 

of  words  are  made,  so  by  the  varying  of  this  Cross  in 

form    and    coloLir   anil   metal    (ringing   as   it    were   the 

changes,)  are  made  infinite  several  coats."  ■"    The  Cross 

of  S.  George  has  been  the  badge  of  England,  of  both 

king  and  nation,  at  least  from  the  time  of  Edward  III. 

During  the  wars  of  York   and  Lancaster,  the   red   or  white    rose   nearly 

superseded  it,  but  it  revived   upon  the  termination  of  the  civil  contest. 

The  king's  badge  was  formerly   worn   only   by   his  own   retainers,   and 

by  free  corporations,  hence  the  city  of  London  bears  the  red  cross  and 

the  sword,   the   latter  probably  as    the  symbol  of  S.    Paul,  the  patron 

saint  of  the  city.^     Stow  believes  the  sword  to  have  been  granted  as  an 

honorable  augmentation  to  Walworth,  for  the  service  done  by  him  to 

Richard    II.   when   he   smote   down   Wat  Tyler.      Others   say   that   the 

'  Matthew  Paris,  p.  604.  Upon  the  stained  glass  of  the  time  of  the  first  Crusade,  the 
warriors  are  represented  "carrying  a  cross  upon  their  banners:  their  helmels,  mail  jackets, 
sleeves,  and  hoods,  and  their  bucklers,  are  still  without  heraldic  distinctions." — Maillot, 
Costuiiu's,  vol.  iii.,  p.  71,  pi.  xxiii. 

"  Froi.ssart,  vol.  iii.,  p.  105. 

^  The  heraldic  shields  in  this  chapter  are  taken  from  Newton's  Display  of  Heraldry. 

■*  Fuller's  Supplement  to  Hist,  of  Holy  IVarre,  bk.  v.,  chap.  iv. 

^  Gtossarv  of  I/i-nilJry,  "  Badge." 


Cross  of  S.  George. 


3^4 


History  of  the  Cross 


arms  granted  at  that  time  were  those  of  Sir  John  Philpot,  who  killed  the 
rebel  after  he  was  stricken  down.' 

In  heraldry  every  charge  and  tincture  had  its  symbolical  meaning,  as 
well  understood  in  the  age  of  chivalry  as  is  the  alphabet  in  this";  so 
„     ,.  ,.       ,       doubtless  every  variety  of  the  sacred  sign  of  our  salvation 

Symbolism  of  ■'  '  ^ 

Heraldic  Crosses.  ]^j^(j  jjg  mystical  interpretation,  which  reminded  the  wearer 
of  some  virtue  with  which  he  himself,  or  his  ancestor,  was  graced,  and 
which  it  was  his  duty  to  keep  bright.  The  signification  of  many  of  the 
crosses  has  been  lost,  but  some  have  been  preserved.  A  few  instances 
are  given. 

Potent  (enabling)  was  the  ancient  name  of  a  crutcli,  or 
walking-staff.     Chaucer  in  the  RoiiiaiDit  of  tlic  Rose,  describ- 
ing Elde,  says: 

"  So  old  she  was  that  slie  ne  wente 
A  foot,  but  it  were  by  potente." 


The  Cross 
Potent. 


CT 

73 

r 

-1  . 

Jerusalem  Cross. 


Jerusalem  Cross. 


Cross  Potent. 

Again  in  Somnour's  tale: 

"And  leyde  adoun  his  potente  and  hat." 

Hence  the  cross  potent  implies  support.  It  is  not  a  symbol  of  a  decrepit 
Christian,  but  of  one  who  trusts  in  the  virtue  and  power  of  the  Cross. 
Sometimes  it  is  poititcd  or  pitched,  for  thus  the  pilgrims'  staves  were 
made,  that  they  might  plant  them  in  the  ground  when  they  wislied  to 
perform  their  devotions.  Both  forms  are  appropriate  bearings  of  an  aged 
Christian.  Hence  also  the  fitness  of  its  adoption  by  the  Knights  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  who  guarded  that  sacred  place  and  aided  the  pilgrims. 

'  Milliiiytoii,  Heraldry  in  Hist.,  etc.,  p.  194. 

•  In  the  legend  of  King  Arthur  and  the  Ermine  in  the  arms  of  Bretagne,  Messire  Yves,  etc., 
Kerskao  is  descril)ed  as  pre-eminent  in  knightly  prowess  and  accomplishments.  "  But  in  the 
noble  science  of  heraldry  he  w.as  indeed  a  master.  No  king-of-arms,  nor  herald,  understood 
better  than  he  the  value  of  armorial  bearings  blazoned  upon  a  warrior's  shield.  lie  could  tell  at 
a  glance  to  what  nation  he  belonged,  could  trace  the  origin  of  his  race,  and  name  the  exploits  by 
which  his  ancestors  h.ad  distinguished  themselves." — Ihiil.,  p.  167. 


The  Cross  in  Heraldry 


365 


This  form  also  is  sometimes  called  the  Jerusalem  cross,  but  it  was 
only  part  of  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  holy  city.  The  arms  of  Jerusa- 
lem are  argent,  a  cross  potent  between  four  plain  crosslets  or.  The  five 
crosses  symbolize  the  five  wounds  of  our  blessed  Lord  ;  or  jemsaiem 

Christ   and   the   four  cjuarters  of   the   earth,    for   which    He  Cross, 

suffered';  or  as  some  say,  equally  inaccurately,  Christ  and  the  four 
Evangelists.  The  false  blazonry — metal  upon  metal — was  purposely  used 
in  allusion  to  Ps.  l.wiii.,  v.  13:  "  Though  ye  have  lien  among  the  pots, 
yet  shall  ye  be  as  the  wings  of  a  dove  covered  with  silver,  and  her 
feathers  with  yellow  gold."  "  Another  cause  why  Godfrey  bare  that 
coat  was  this:  after  his  conquest  of  the  Holy  Land,  it  was  concluded 
that  he  should  forever  use  the  most  strange  and  unaccustomed  coate  of 
arms  that  ever  was  borne,  which  for  thereon  manner  of  bearing  might 
move  question  to  all  that  should  behold  the  same  to  demaund  if  it  were 
not  a  false  coat.^     Godfrey  de  Bouillon  may  have  been  influenced  by  the 


cP 


Tau  Cross. 


Saltire  Cross. 


Calvary  Cross. 


same  feeling  of  humility  which  led  him  to  refuse  to  wear  a  crown  of  gold 
when  his  Master  had  worn  a  crown  of  thorns,"  and  hence  he  woukl  put 
aside  all  tokens  of  human  honor  and  bear  those  of  humiliation. 

The  Tau  cross  is  oftentimes  called  the  Cross  of  S.  Antony,  because 
that  saint  is  represented  as  bearing  it  upon  his  habit.  It  resembles  the 
cross  potent,  but  the  extremities  are  enlarged  like  the  cross 

'  T        •  1  1    ,  1       1  r  •  11  "^^^  Cross. 

pattee.      It  is  the  old   symbol   of   security,   as   already   ex- 
plained, from  the  command  given  to  the  angel  as  recorded  in  Ezek.  i.x.,  6. 
Yet  in   Europe,  the  crouch,  or  cruch,  is  recognized,  and  some  ancient 
families,  like  that  of  Bette  in  Flanders,  bear  this  ordinary 
to   signify  that    they   have   been  great  supporters  of   their 
prince  and  of  the  Christian  f<uth.      As  has  been  elsewhere  mentioned, 
forms   of   absolution  were  formerly   inscribed  on   a  cross  of   this  form, 

'  Stephen  Borgia,  De  Cruce  Vaticana.  ^  Millington,  Heraldry  in  Hist.,  etc.,  p.  201. 


Cross  of 
Absolution. 


366 


History  of  the  Cross 


hence  it  was  sometimes  called,  according  to  Berry,  the  Cross  of  Abso- 
lution. 

The  Saltire,  or  S.  Andrew's  cross,  has  been  derived  from  an  instru- 
ment used  in  scaling  walls.      Leigh  says  that  "  this,  in  the  old  time,  was 
of  the  hight  of  a  man  and  was  borne  of  such  as  used  to 

Cross  Saltire.  ,,  ,        , 

scale  the  walls  [saitarc  in  iiiiiros)  of  towns,  which  were 
then  very  low,  as  evidenced  by  the  walls  of  Rome,  which  "  were  such 
that  Remus  easelye  leaped  over  them ;  witnesseth  also  the  same,  the 
citie  of  Winchester,  chieftaine  of  the  Danes,  who  was  sleyne  by  Guy, 
Erie  of  Warwick."  But  the  Christian  herald  cannot  give  up  the  hal- 
lowed associations  identifying  the  Saltire  with  the  cross  upon  which  S. 
Andrew  ascended  to  the  crown  of  martyrdom.  In  the  days  of  chivalry 
it  was  held  in  honor  as  that  Apostle's  cross,  and  was  assumed  by  "  many 


Cross  IJotonc 


Cruss  Patonce. 


Cross  Fleury. 


knights  and  martyrs,  some  bearing  it  sharp  to  show  their  sufferings, 
some  plaine  to  denote  their  willingness  to  suffer,  and  some  flory  in 
token  of  their  triumph."  S.  Alban,  the  first  Christian  martyr  in 
Ancient  Britain,  is  said  to  have  borne,  azure,  a  Saltire  or.  The  symbol- 
ism of  the  Saltire  cross  is,  therefore,  readiness  to  suffer  for  the  faith. 
This  cross,  crossletted,  is  called  by  the  French  heralds  the  Cross  of 
S.  Julian. 

The  Cross  of  Passion,  when  erected  upon  three  steps,  is 
known  as  the  Cross  of  Calvary.      The  steps  allude  to  the 
three  Christian  virtues.  Faith,  Hope,  antl  Charity. 

All  crosses  whose  ornamentation  is  derived  from  the  vegetable  king- 
dom have  a  symbolic  reference  to  the  growing  and  developing  virtues 
of  the  Christian  bearer.  The  cross  botoni',  formed  with  trefoil  or  three 
buds  at  the  end,  is  specially  applicable  to  the  budding  or 
promising  virtues  of  a  young  champion  of  Christ,  and  may 
properly  be  used  in  reference  to  children  or  youths.      If  tin-  terminations 


Cross  of  Calvary. 


Cross  Boton£. 


The  Cross  in  Heraldry 


1^7 


Cross  Patonce. 


be  considered  as  trefoils,  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  Holy  Trinity,  but 
some  think  them  incomplete  trefoils. 

In  the  cros'i  patonce  the  bud  has  expanded  into  an  open- 
ing blossom,  denoting  the  progressive  stage  of  the  graces 
developing  in  the  Christian  warrior. 

The  cross  flciiry  is  the  earliest  variation  of  the  cross.  It  appears  on 
the  coins  of  the  Emperor  Justinian.  The  extremities  are  expanded,  the 
petals  being  open   and  curled  over  in  volutes, — the  flower        _       „, 

^  ^        i  '  Cross  Fleury 

in  full  bloom,  implying  tliat  the  bearer  was  a  matured  soldier  °^  Fiory. 

of  the  Cross,  whose  noble  achievements  had  been  recognized  as  flourish- 
ing in  the  field  of  Christian  chivalry.  It  is  strange  that  while  frequent 
on  Monumental  Brasses  in  England,  it  is  never  found  on  them  on  the 
Continent. 


M. 


^ 


Patriarchal  Cross.  Cross  of  S.  James.  Cross  Ponimee. 

The  Patriarchal  cross,  called  by  the  French  the  Cross  of  Lorraine, 
should  be  specially  noted,  not  only  on  account  of  the  doubt  cast  upon  its 
ever  having  been  actually  used  as  a  processional  cross,   but  „  .  . 

^  J  V  '  Patriarchal 

for  its  pregnant  symbolism.      It  is  recognized  as  an  ordinary  cross, 

in  heraldry.  Its  pale  crossed  by  two  transverse  bars,  says  Nisbet,  repre- 
sents the  work  of  Redemption,  performed  both  for  the  Jews  and  the 
Gentiles.  "  The  ancient  Patriarchs  of  Jerusalem  bore  on  their  banners 
this  form  of  the  cross,  upon  a  white  sheet  between  four  stars  gules,  and 
the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  had  a  similar  cross  of  gold  upon  a  blue 
sheet,  between  two  stars  in  cliief  and  a  crescent  in  base  argent."  '  This 
cross  was  the  badge  of  the  Knights  Templars.  Upon  a  white  cloak  they 
wore  a  Patriarchal  cross  gules,  fimbriated  with  gold.  The  red  cross  in- 
dicated their  readiness  to  shed  blood  in  defence  of  Christ  and  His  re- 
ligion, and  the  white  garments,  emblems  of  the  purity  of  the  lives  and 
conversation  of  the  Order. 

We  are  compelled  to  omit  a  most  important  part  of  our  subject, — the 

'  Newton,  Displav  of  Heraldry^  p.  164. 


;68 


History  of  the  Cross 


cross  connected  with  the  various  orders  of  knighthood, — but  to  treat  this 
as  it  deserves  would  require  a  vokime  in  itself.      One  cross  we  note  be- 
cause of  its  frequent  occurrence  in  heraldry.     The  Spanish 

Cross  of  1  -^  i 

S.James.  Order  of  S.  James  or  S.  lago  commemorates  the  miraculous 

appearance,  according  to  tradition,  of  the  Apostle  at  the  battle  of  Clavijo, 
A.D.  S46.  Their  badge  is  not  so  much  a  cross  as  a  sword-hilt,  for  the 
upper  limb  is  terminated  with  a  heart,  the  lower  limb  pointed  like  a 
sword,  and  the  transverse  terminations  are  like  those  of  the  cross  />atoncc. 
Knights  of  noble  birth  bore  the  pilgrim's  scallop  shell  of  S.  James  at  the 
intersection  of  the  arms.' 


Cross  .\vellaiie.  Crobs  Pattee.  Maltese  Cross. 

The  cross  poiniiicc  bears  at  its  terminations  balls  intended 

Cross  Pommee, 

Pomciie,  or         to  represent  apples.     This  device  is  applicable  to  a  fruitful 

Pommettee.  .  r     1        ^ 

champion  of  the  Cross. 

The  cross  avcllanc  represents  four  filberts.  Its  significance  is  the 
same  as  the  cross poimncc.  "  This  form  of  the  Cross,"  says  Nisbet,  "  is 
placed  "  (sometimes)  "  at  the  top  of  the  mound  of  kings 
and  emperors,  as  an  ensign  of  sovereignty." 

The  cross  pat  tec  symbolizes  the  open  wings  of  a  bird  as  covering  her 
young,  hence  it  intimates  the  protecting  power  of  the  Cross,  and  apper- 
tains to  the  Christian  soldier  who  has  shielded  the  weak. 
It  was  fitly  adopted  by  the  Knights  Hospitallers. 

The  Maltese  cross  is  the  cross  pat tc'e  indented,  thus  forming  eight 
])oints  symbolical  of  the  eight  beatitudes.  It  is  an  appro- 
priate badge  for  charitable  societies. 

The  cross  violiiic  is  the  form  of  the  iron  uimii  the  nether  stone  of  a  mill, 

"  whicli  beareth  and  guideth  the  upper  stone  equally  in  its  course  and," 

saith  Boswell  in  his  Armories  of  Honour.  "  is  a  fit  bearing 

Cross  Moline. 

for  judges  and  magistrates,   wiio  should  carry   themselves 

'  For  a  brief  conipenduim  of  Orders  of  Knglish  Kniglits,  see  Millington,  Heraldry  in  Hist., 
etc.     l-'or  a  full  account  of  European  Orders,  see  Favinc,  Tlieatrc  of  Honour. 


Cross  Avellane. 


Cross  Pattee 
or  Foi  mee. 


Maltese  Cross. 


The  Cross  in  Heraldry 


569 


Cross  Milrine. 


equally  to  all  men  in  Ljiviiig  justice."     Sometimes  the  pale,   or  single 

shaft,  only  is  used,  when  it  is  termed  the  cross  viilriiic.     In 

allusion  to  the  allegory  of  equal  justice  just  mentioned,  the 

arms  of  the  Honorable  Society  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  London,  are  blazoned, 

according  to  Guillim,  fifteen  terdemoulines  or,  on  a  canton  of  the  second 

a  lion  rampant  purpure. 

The  cross  ccrcclUe,  sometimes  called  rccercclUe,  is  perhaps  one  of  the 
richest  of  heraldic  crosses  in  symbolism,  and  most  pregnant  with  mean- 
ing. The  ends  are  curled  like  rams'  liorns,  a  symbol  of  cross  cerceiiee 
strength   frequently  used   in   the  Bible.      To  the  bearer  this  or  Ancree. 


Cross  Moline. 


Cross  Milrine. 


Cross  .\ncree. 


form  of  the  Cross  implies  confiding  strength  in  the  Cross.  When  the 
terminations  are  less  curled,  some  heralds  distinguish  it  as  the  cross 
ancrdc,  signifying  hope  anchored  in  Christ. 

The  cross  barbce  derives  its  name  from  its  arrow-like,  or  barbed,  ter- 
minations. It  alludes  to  the  firmness  with  which  the  doctrine  of  the 
Cross  is  fixed  in  the  heart  of  the  bearer.      It  is  sometimes 

Cross  Barbae. 

known  as  the  nail-head  cross,  because  of  the  resemblance  to 

the  quadrangular-headed  nails  of  the  Passion  when  represented  in  art. 

No  herald  of  note,  however,  has  sanctioned  this  application. 

There  are  instances  of  the  cross  huinctttfe  {i.  e.,  a  plain  cross  couped, 
or  cut  off),  having  the  heads  of  animals  issuing  from  its  extremities: 
usually  these  are  denominated  from  the  animals  represented, 

Crosses  Termi- 

but  by  some  heralds  such  crosses  have  the  generic  appella-  nating  with  Ani- 
mals' Heads. 

tion  of  anccttce  (handled):  ex.  gr.,  a  family  of  the  name  of 
Kaer  in  France  bear  gules,  a  cross  ermine  gringole  (snake-headed).  Such 
terminations  of  the  cross  anccttce  as  the  heads  of  lions,  eagles,  reptiles, 
etc.,  are  met  with,  although  they  are  not  common.  The  same  interpre- 
tation must  be  used  as  when  the  entire  animal  is  employed  in  heraldry. 
The  noble,  and  not  the  ignoble,  qualities  are  implied.     Thus  the  lion 


370 


History  of  the  Cross 


signifies  nobility,  courage,  magnanimity:  the  eagle,  authority,  power, 
jurisdiction;  the  serpent,  subtlety  and  wisdom. 

Parts  of  ferocious  animals,  with  crosses  and  other  Christian  symbols, 
occur  in  arms.  They  indicate  the  invincible  courage,  comparable  only 
to  that  of  the  animals  depicted  upon  the  shield,  with  which  the  bearer 
fought  in  the  Holy  Land,  in  the  cause  of  the  Cross. 

These  examples  of  crosses,  either  borne  alone  or  associated  with  escal- 
lop shells,  martlets,  mullets,  and  crescents,  unequivocally  tell  the  story  of 
their  origin  when  found  on  old  coats  of  arms,  the  devices  of  those  enlisted 
in  the  Crusades  in  the  twofold  capacity  of  pilgrims  and  champions. 


Cross  Uarbee. 


Cross  Ancettee. 


Pall  Cross. 


The  Pall  Cross. 


The  Pall  or  forked  cross,  resembling  the  branches  of  the  tree  upon 
^\■llicil  the  sufferer  was  suspended,  demands  special  attention.  Accord- 
ing to  heraldry  it  may  be  described  as  the  upper  half  of  a 
Saltire,  conjoined  to  the  lower  half  of  a  pale.  It  is  some- 
times called  the  cross  fiirclicc,  but  that  is  frequently  represented  with 
four  forked  pointed  arms;  even  when  three  are  used,  the  devices  differ 
in  form  and  meaning.  The  cross  fiirclu'c  might  be  called  the  Pall  cross 
couped  fitched. 

The  ancient  family  of  Cunningham,  in  Scotland,  bear,  argent,  a  cross 
fiirclu'c,  sable,  in  honor  of  the  loyalty  and  subtlety  of  their  ancestor. 
n    „■    >,,  When  Malcolm  Canmore  escaped  from  the  usurper  Macbeth, 

Cunningham  i  ^  ' 

*'''"^-  a   Cunningham  concealed  the    fugitive  prince  by- covering 

him  with  straw.  After  Malcolm  was  established  upon  the  throne,  he 
granted  large  domains  to  his  protector,  and  the  arms,  a  cross  fiirclu'c, 
representing  the  wooden  fork  used  in  spreading  the  straw. 

The  Pall  cross  proper  extends  to  the  edge  of  the  shield  and  repre- 
sents   the    well-known    ecclesiastical    vestment    also    called 
sii/'crhtiiiicmlc,    hicra,    stole,    and    oniopliflrioii.      Although 
hardly  in  place  here,  some  description  of  tliis  vestment  may  not  be  un- 


The  Pall  or 
Pallium. 


The  Cross  in  Heraldry  371 

necessary.  It  has  been  used  in  the  Church  since  the  time  of  S.  Ciirys- 
ostoiu,  who  was  ciiargcd  with  accusint^  tlirce  deacons  of  taking  liis 
oinop/wrion.  Some  archaeologists  claim  that  it  was  first  worn  by  Sylves- 
ter I.  in  the  reign  of  Constantine.  In  the  present  time  it  is  worn,  by  all 
bishops  of  the  Greek  Church,  above  the  phc/oiiion,  or  vestment,  during 
the  service  of  the  Eucharist,  and,  as  used  by  them,  it  resembles  the 
ancient  pall  much  more  nearly  than  that  used  by  the  Western  ecclesias- 
tics. According  to  Rock,  it  originated  in  the  ancient  Roman  toga,  which 
was  permitted  to  dwindle,  for  the  sake  of  convenience,  till  it  became  a 
broad  band,  the  badge  of  authority. 

In  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great  it  was  made  of  white  linen  without 
seam  or  needlework,  and  the  earliest  adornment  was  either  a  Good 
Shepherd,  or  a  cross.  In  later  times,  the  pall  was  woven  of  white  lamb's 
wool.  In  the  Roman  Church  it  purports  to  be  made  of  the  wool  shorn 
from  the  lambs  which  are  blessed  on  S.  Agnes's  Day  upon  the  altar  of 
the  venerable  Church  of  S.  Agnes  at  Rome.  The  vestment  was  placed 
for  a  night  upon  the  altar  (some  say,  tomb)  of  S.  Peter,  and  the  next  day 
was  consecrated  with  papal  benediction.  For  a  thousand  years  it  has 
scarcely  varied  in  shape,  an  ovoid,  bearing,  before  the  eighth  century, 
two,  or  four,  red  or  purple  crosses,  since  then,  eight  black  crosses.  Pela- 
gius  either  the  I.  or  II.  required  all  metropolitans  to  present  themselves 
to  receive  their  pall  within  three  months  of  their  consecration,  but  the 
custom  afterwards  became  more  lax.  Isidore  of  Seville  says  it  was  once 
common  to  all  bishops,  but  in  time  it  was  restricted  to  archbishops. 
Gregory  the  Great  forbade  the  payment  of  fees,  on  the  reception  of  the 
pall,  but  his  successors  became  wiser  in  their  generation,  and  the  journey 
and  fees  became  a  grievous  tax.  One  archbishop  of  Mayence  paid  thirty 
thousand  gold  pieces. 

Mystically,  the  pall  is  taken  either  for  the  lost  sheep,  or  for  the  Cross 
as  borne  by  our  Lord.  Like  the  stole,  it  would  seem  to  symbolize 
Christ's  yoke  (Matt,  xi.,  2n),  hence  it  is  interpreted  to  teach       «.     ,,  ,.       , 

-  '      ^"  I  Symbolism  of 

humility,  zeal,  etc.      Walcott   interprets  the  "  pendants  to  the  paii. 

represent  the  double  burden  of  the  Pope";  of  course  this  symbolism 
could  only  be  applicable  to  the  Pontiff's  use  of  the  vestment. 

The  very  pins  with  which  the  Pall  was  fastened  were  pressed  into 
service.  Bosio,  after  speaking  of  the  manner  in  which  all  Christians,  but 
especially  prelates,  ought  to  bear  their  cross  spiritually,  in  self-denial, 


372  History  of  the  Cross 

self-discipline,  and  love  to  their  neighbor  and  fear  of  God,  tells  the  bish- 
ops that  they  are  reminded  of  their  virtues  by  their  pall  uijon  their  shoul- 
-     ,  ,.       .       ders,  and  quotes  from  Pope  Innocent  III.,  1198,  as  follows: 

Symbolism  of  '  1  ^  -^ 

"»"=  f '"=•  "  The  pall  is  fastened  with  three  pins.     One  on  the  breast, 

another  on  the  left  shoulder  and  the  third  upon  the  right  shoulder  (be- 
hind, says  ^nnocent).  The  first  alludes  to  compassion  for  our  neighbor, 
the  second  to  the  administration  of  the  office,  and  the  third  to  the  exe- 
cution of  justice.  The  first  pricks  the  mind  by  pity,  the  second  b\-  labor, 
and  the  third  by  terror.  The  first,  the  apostle  reminds  us  of  when  he 
says,  'Who  is  weak,  and  I  am  not  weak  ?  who  is  scandalized,  and  I  burn 
not  ? '  The  second,  '  Besides  all  that  which  is  without,  which  is  instant 
daih-  with  me.  The  care  of  all  the  Churches.'  The  third,  '  If  the  just 
scarcely  be  saved,  where  shall  the  sinner  and  impious  appear  ? '  "  ' 

"  By  the  way,"  saith  old  Fuller,  "  the  pall  is  a  pontifical  vestment, 
considerable  for  the  matter,  making,  and  mysteries  thereof.  For  the 
_  ,,    ,   „    ,        matter,    it   is   made   of   lamb's  wool   and   superstition,   the 

Fuller  s  Explana-  i  ' 

tion  ofthe  Pall,  making,  the  wool  being  without  artificial  color,  and  spun 
by  S.  Agnes's  nuns,  and  first  cast  into  the  tomb  of  S.  Peter,  taken  from 
his  body,  say  others.  Three  mysteries  are  couched  therein.  First, 
Humility,  which  beautifieth  the  Clergy  above  all  their  costly  copes. 
Secondly,  Industry  to  follow  Him  who  fetched  his  wandering  sheep 
home  on  his  shoulders.  But  to  speak  plainly,  the  mystourie  of  mysteries 
in  the  pall  was  the  archbishops  receiving  it  showed  their  dependence  on 
Rome,  and  .  .  .  was  a  sufficient  acknowledgment  of  their  subjec- 
tion: and  as  it  owned  Roman  power,  so  in  after  ages  it  increased  their 
profit.  For  though  once  such  palls  were  freely  given  to  archbishops 
whose  places  in  Britain  were  rather  cumbersome  than  commodious, 
having  little  more  than  their  pains  for  their  labor;  yet  in  after  ages  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury's  pall  was  sold  for  five  thousand  florins:  so 
that  the  Pope  might  well  have  the  golden  fleece  if  he  could  sell  all  his 
lamb's  wool  at  that  rate.  Only  let  mc  add,  that  the  author  of  Canter- 
bury's borik  styles  this  pall  taiiquaiii  i^^raiidc  Cliristc  sairaiiiiiitinu.  It  is 
well  tanquam  came  to  help  it,  or  else  there  had  been  eight  sacraments."  '' 
Many  wealthy  mechants  in  the  Middle  Ages  both  in  England  and  on 
the  continent  of   F.urope,    having   no   armorial   bearings,   used   as   their 

'  Iiiiwcentius  Papa  Tcrtitis  Myslcrium  Xusstc,  lib.  i.,  cap.  (13  ;  Bosin,  La  Trionfante  Croce, 
lib.  ii.,  cap.  3.  "  Fuller.  Church  JJis/.,  p.  71. 


The  Cross  in  Heraldry 


373 


signet,  or  marks  of  cos4"nizancc,  certain  niono_L,nanis.  These  are  invariably 
of  the  Cross  in  combination  witli  some  other  merely  mundane  emblem, 
such  as  the  circle  referring  to  the  globe,  the  pennon  or  H-i-g  m^^^.^^ons  hom 
of  a  ship,   or  the  vane  of  a  weathercock,   alluding  to  the  Heraldry, 

prosperous  gales  upon  which  depended  the  success  of  their  navigation. 


Mercliants'  Seals.      From  Newton's  Display  of  llcrahlry. 

The  engravings  are  from  seals  on  ancient  MSS.  in  the  Rolls  Chapel, 
London,  and  are  given  of  the  original  size;  they  are  supposed  to  be  the 
signets  of  merchants  or  of  wealthy  commoners  generally,  anterior  to  the 


Sculptured  .Monograms.      From  Newton's  Display  oj  lliraldry. 

time  of  Richard  III.  As  armorial  bearings  are  affixed  to  some  of  the 
instruments,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  some  were  gentlemen ;  others  seem 
not  to  have  been  entitled  to  bear  arms. 


Sculptured  Monograms.      From  Ncvv  ton's  Display  of  Heraldry . 

In  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  the  wool  merchants  appear 
to  have  contributed  largely  both  in  Encrland  and  on  the  Continent  to  the 


Scul[itured  Monograms.     From  ^&\v\.ot;\\  Display  of  Heraldry, 

erecting  and  repairing  of  churches;  hence,  especially  in  seaports,  we  find 
their  monograms,  sometimes  in  the  ceiling  or  walls,  at  other  times  in  the 
glass. 


374  History  of  the  Cross 

The  first  of  this  series  of  monograms  appertained  to  John  Jay,  a  mer- 
chant of  Bristol;  it  is  found  in  Redchffe  Cluirch,  and  bears  the  date  of 
145 1.  Otliers  belonged  to  merchants  of  the  reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and 
Edward  IV. 

In  the  next  series  will  be  found  devices  taken  from  the  Church  of  S. 
Andrew-under-shaft,  London,  the  church  at  Doncaster,  and  from  Bristol 
Cathedral.  Similar  monograms  were  in  use  on  the  Continent,  particu- 
larly in  Germany,  and  in  the  Netherlands,  where  the  woollen  manufac- 
tories formerly  abounded.  The  engravings  in  the  third  series  are  from 
Malines  in  Belgium,  with  the  exception  of  the  last  one,  which  is  on  the 
wall  of  the  ruined  monastic  Church  of  S.  Clement  at  Tours  in  France.' 

'  Newton,  Display  of  Heraldry,  pp.  396-399. 


CHAPTER   III 


THE   CROSS   ON   COINS 


THE  mystic  sign  of  the  Lord  of  Life  '  hallowed  the  symbol  of  prop- 
erty from  the  beginning  of  coinage.      Numismatics  have  of  late 
become  one  of  the   fashionable   studies,   hence   the   barest    ,  ..    .,     ,.. 

'  Antiquity  of  the 

reference  to  a  few  facts  only  is  needed  in  illustration  of  this     cross  on  coins, 
part  of  our  subject. 

The  place  of  the  origin  of  coinage  is  a  matter  of  dispute.  Ionia, 
Miletus  near  Ephesus,  and  /Egina  are  rival  claimants  for  the  honor. 
But  the  doubt  appears  to  be  respecting  gold;  the  first  silver  coins,  it  is 
presumed,  belong  to  ^-Egina,  about  B.C.  870 ;  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  they  were  struck  by  Phidon,  n.C.  750.  Upon  one  side  they 
bear  a  tortoise,  upon  the  other,  an  indented  square,  or  cross,  considered 
a  certain  mark  of  antiquity;  it  seems  probable  that  the  latter  was  merely 
the  stamp  of  the  coiner. 

The  use  of  a  cross  before  the  Christian  era,  on  early  Sidonian  and 
Phoenician  coins  has  been 
previously  noticed.  Coinage 
attained  a  high  degree  of  ex- 
cellence in  the  reign  of  Alex- 
ander I.  of  Macedon,  B.C. 
497-454;  a  cross  appears  up- 
on the  coins  of  that  period 

and     continued     to     be     used  Roman  Ouincimx.      ¥mm  T/u- Art  Jcuo-nal. 

until  the  time  of  Amyntas,  371  B.C.     The   Roman  quincunx  also  bears 
a  cross  on  each  side. 

'  It  seems  fitting  that  the  sign  of  the  Lord  of  Life  should  consecrate  money,  for  the  first 
mention  of  it  is  in  connection  with  death:  Abraham's  purchasing  the  cave  of  Machpelah  to 
"bury  his  dead  out  of  his  sight."     Gen.  xxiii.,  S.  g,  15,  16. 

375 


oV- 


History  of  the  Cross 


Although  the  early  Christians,  especially  the  various  heretical  sects, 
introduced  the  head  of  Christ  and  even  the  Cross  upon  their  medals,  yet 
Cross  on  Christ-  '^^^^  ^''^^  Current  coins  of  the  Christian  era  which  bore  the 
ian  Coins.  token  of  our  Lord  were  those  of  Constantine.     This  em- 

peror naturall_v  preferred  the  representation  of  the  Labaniiii  to  that  of 
the  Cross,  as  attesting  the  reality  of  his  vision. 

Gretser,  commenting  on  the  stamjaing  of  coins  with  the  Cross,  in- 
dulges in  what  reads  like  grim  satire.  In  substance,  he  says:  "  Truly  it 
pleased  the  rulers  of  Christian  nations  to  place  on  money  the  most  sacred 
sign  of  the  Cross,  that  those  who  loved  not  the  Cross  on  account  of 
Christ,  might  love  it  for  the  sake  of  the  coin;  and  as  Christians  place 
their  heart  on  money,  they  might  not  tear  it  awa\-  from  the  Cross,  lest 


Coin  of  Constantine.     From  Gretser's  Dc  Sancla  dine. 

in  gathering  that  treasure  on  which  alone  their  heart  was  placed  they 
might  be  submerged  and  drowned.  Thus,  wliile  they  beheld  the  price 
for  all  things  in  this  workl,  they  might  recall  the  great  price  paid  for 
their  redemption;  and  that  not  in  corruptible  gold  and  silver,  but  the 
precious  blood  of  the  immaculate  Lamb,  immolated  upon  the  Cross  for 
us.  And  since  those  who  covet  wealth  fall  into  the  snares  of  the  Devil 
and  various  temptations,  therefore  to  the  incitement  of  avarice  the  Cross 
was  added  as  an  antidote  and  shield  against  the  evil  arts  of  the  malign 
enemy.  Hence  Nicolaus  Oresimus,  Bishop  of  Lexoviensis,  says,  that  to 
the  name  of  God  the  Cross  was  added  as  testimony  to  the  genuineness 
of  the  coin  in  weight  and  material,  which  if  princes  violate  in  either  re- 
spect they  are  tacitly  guilty  of  lying  and  breaking  that  commandment, 
Tliou  shalt  not  take  God's  name  in  \'ain.'  "  ' 


'  Gretser,  De  Crucc,  torn,  i.,  lil>.  ii.,  tap.  56. 


The  Cross  on  Coins 


m 


Coin  uf  Constantino. 
From  Walsh's  Ancient  Coins,  Medals  and  Gems. 


Constantine  was  content  with  the  I.aharuin.  Ilis  son  Constantius 
added  the  legend,  "  In  this  conciiier,"  not  precisely  as  it  has  been  trans- 
mitted to  us  by  historians,  "  In  hoc  s/\^/io  vincc,'"  but  "  Hoc       coins  of  con- 

, ,  ,        ,^  r   1   •  ■  AT-    .  ■  stantius. 

signo  Victor  ens.  On  one  ot  his  corns,  V  ictory  is  crown- 

ing the  Emperor,  who  holds  the  Labiiriini.  and  the  exergue  may  be  read, 

A  fi)r  Priiiii'iii,  SIS  for  Sis- 


coisiviii.  i.  c,"  the  first  tribute 
of  Siscia,"  a  town  in  Croatia. 
In  spite  of  the  Emperor's 
Arianism,  he  was  overruled 
to  testify  to  the  faith.  His 
coins  bear  the  monogram  ;g 
between  A  and  il,  Christ  the 
beginning  and  the  end.'  To 
this  Emperor  is  usually  gix'en  the  credit  of  being  the  first  wlio  adopted 
Christian  emblems,  but  Gretser  gives  an  engraving  of  a  coin  of  Crispus 
on  which  our  Lord  is  represented  holding  a  long  Latin  cross  between 
two  figures  presumed  to  be  those  of  Constantine  and  Crispus.'  The 
authenticity  of  this  coin  is  disputed  by  some  numismatists,  although 
Baronius  describes  it.' 

Allusion  has  already  been 
made  to  the  difference  of 
opinion  as  to 
whom  belongs 
the  honor  of  inventing  that 
most  significant  symbol,  the 
Cross  surmounting  the  globe 
or  orb,  which  is  used  in  the 
coronation  of  Christian  sov- 
ereigns to  this  day.  The  orb  was  the  ancient  insignia  of  dominion — 
Gretser  gives  an  illustration  of  a  coin  of  Nerva  (A.I).  96-98);  three  J>i/ie, 
or  balls,  arranged  in  a  pyramidal  form,  marked  with  the  parts  of  the  then 
known  world,  Asi.  Evr.  Afr. ,  Asia  being  placed  on  top  of  the  others, 
instead  of  Europe,  as  would  seem  more  in  accordance  with  Roman  feel- 

'  Walsh,  JTssav  on  Coins,  p.  gS. 
''I/lid.,  p.  100. 

^  Gretser,  De  Crtiee,  torn.  ili..  lib.  i.,  cap.  8.     Crispus  was  born  a.d.  300;  created  Cresar,. 
317  ;  slain  by  order  of  his  father,  326  (see  page  156).  ^  Baronius,  Anno ^24. 


Cross  and  Orb. 


Coin  of  Constantius. 
From  Walsh's  Ancient  Coins.  .Medals  and  Gems. 


378 


History  of  the  Cross 


ing.'     Constantine  placed  the  three  perpendicularly  under  the  Labarum. 

The  change,  tlie  substitution  of  the  Cross  in  place  of  the  figure  of  Victory 

on  the  globe  held  in  the  hand,  was  natural;  as 
we  have  seen,  it  has  been  claimed  for  Jovian, 
A.D.  363.  Gretser  gives  a  coin  of  Valentinian, 
A.D.  364,  on  which  it  appears,"  but  at  all  events 
it  became  established  as  part  of  the  royal  para- 
phernalia from  the  time  of  Theodosius. 

Gratianus,  A.D.  367-379,  we  believe  was  the 
first   who   honored   the  Cross   by 

Cross  Made  Prin- 
cipal Charge  on     making  it,  with  a  wreath,  the  only 

Coins. 

charsje  on  the  reverse  of  a  coin. 


Coin  of  Nerva. 
From  Gretser's  De  Sane  la  Cruce. 


On  another  coin  of  the  same  Emperor,  he 
holds  in  his  right  hand  a  long  Latin  cross, 
and  in  his  left  a  globe  surmounted  by  Vic- 
tory, while  he  is  trampling  upon  a  serpent.^ 

Theodosius,  A.D.  379-408,  according  tn 
tradition,  was  favored  in  a  vision  at  night  by 
the  appearance  of  two  men  on  w  hite  liorses 
whom  he  recognized  as  S.  John  and  S. 
Philip.  It  is  supposed  that  this  event  is 
commemorated  on  his  coins,  which  bear  two 
figures  with  a  nimbus,  throned,  holding  in 
their  right  hands  a  roll,  in  their  left  a  long 
cross  as  a  sceptre,  the  first  time  it  is  so 
used.* 

But  little  change  worth  noting  appeals 
in  the  coinage  of  the  several  succeeding 
emperors.  Honorius  (A.D.  395-4081  has 
sometimes  a  long  cross  formed  by  the  mon- 
ogram. Valentinianus  III.  (A.D.  424-450) 
often  used  the  Greek  cross  on  the  reverse 
of  his  coins,  and  on  the  obverse  the  double- 
barred   cross   first    appears.      To   Justinian   belongs   more   credit    than   is 

'  Gretser,  De  Criice,  torn.  i..  lib.  ii.,  cap.  54.  Lipsius  says,  "  Malts  (hoc  est pomis)  fis;uram 
orbis  ostend(i-et."  Query  :  Has  this  apple,  or  globe,  any  reference  to  the  fatal  fruit  which  figured 
in  the  Fall  of  Adam?  '  Gretser,  De  Crtice,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  i.,  cap    12.  -^  Ibid.,  cap.  13. 

•"   Theodorct,  Hist.  EccUs.,  lib.  v.,  cap.  24  ;  Gretser,  torn,  iii.,  lib.  i.,  cap.  14. 


Coin  of  Valentinian. 
From  Gretser's  /><■  Saiicia  Cruce. 


The  Cross  on  Coins 


379 


usually  j^ivcn.  On  his  mind  the  perception  seems  to  have  dawned  of 
the  symbohcal  teaching  of  the  Cross.  Heretofore  the  "  great  ones 
of  the  earth  "  had  been  con- 

Justinian  Intro- 
tented    in    doing   homage    to  duces  First  varia- 
tion of  the  Cross. 

the  Cross  by  jiresenting  a 
literal  figure  of  the  instrument  of  death, 
but  Justinian  saw  in  it  the  Tree  of  Life, 
and  hence  ventured  on  the  first  develop- 
ment of  tlie  Cross  by  stamping  his  coins 
with  a  cross  yfc;-/,  the  earliest  variation  of  the  Cross,  A.U.  527-565.  Some 
authorities  have  claimed  that   he  was  the  first  who  placed         cross  Fiory. 

,        ^  ,  1  i.1  •     •        i  r  •  Originator  of 

the  Cross  upon  the  crown,  and  was  the  originator  of  cruci-  cruciform 

form  ground  plans  for  churches.      He  also  used  tlie  mono-  Churches. 

gram,  with  the  chi  transformed  into  a  Latin  cross,  the  upright  of  which 


Coin  of  Gratian. 
From  Gretser's  De  Sancta  C/uce. 


Coiii  of  'rhent-iosius. 
From  Gretser's  Di'  Sii'icla  Cruce. 


Coin  of  Justinian. 
From  (hefser's  De  Sancta  Cruce. 


formed    part   of    the   rho,   and    he   likewise    elevated    the   cross   upon   a 
calvary. 


58o 


History  of  the  Cross 


The  detestable  Phocas  ( A.D.  602-610)  introduced  other  changes.      Not 
Phocas.  satisfied  with  one  orb  and  cross,  his  coins  bear  one  in  eacli 

hand,  and  a  cross-surmounted  diadem. 

Herachus  (A.I).  610-641 )  formed  a  cross 
Heraciius.  of  four  taus  ( cross  rebatcd ),  and 

placed  a  Greek  cross  niolinc.  or  ccrccllcc,  over 
a  small  globe  mounted  on  a  calvary. 


Coin  of  Phocas.     From  Gietser's  Dc  Sancta  Cruce. 


Coin  of  Heraciius. 
From  Gretser's  £>e  Sancta  Cruce. 


Justinianus  II. 


Iconoclasts. 


Justinianus  II.  (A.D.  685-71 1),  son  of  Constantine  Pogonatus,  as- 
cended the  throne  in  685.  Although  of  a  cruel  disposition,  he  affected 
piety,  and  was  the  first  who  introduced  on  his  coins  the 
image  of  the  Saviour,  coi)ied.  it  is  supposed,  from  a  brazen 
statue  in  one  of  the  churches. 

The  eighth  century  witnessed  the  rise  of  the  Iconoclasts,  or  image- 
breakers.     They  erased,  as  impious,  all  impressions  of  the  blessed  Vir- 
gin,  and  e\'en   of   our  Lord,   but  retained   everywhere  the 
sign  of  the  Cross. 
Henceforth  history  on  this  head  presents  little  of  interest. 
Upon  the  coins  of  Great  Britain  the  Cross  first  appears  on  the  sceata 
of   Egbert,    King  of  Kent,   A.n.   665-674.     Althougli    probably   at   first 
_  ^  ■      f  merely  the  mark  of  the  stamp,  vet  it  continued  in  various 

Cross  on  Coins  of  -  1  '   - 

Great  Britain.  forms  ou  tlie  coins  of  thc  Saxoii,  Norman,  and  Englisli 
kings  and  archbishops,  until  the  thirty-second  year  of  Henry  HI.,  when 
a  uniform  type  was  adopted.  Until  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  the  Cross  was 
deeply  impressed  on  copper  pence  so  that  they  could  easily  be  broken 
into  halves  and  quarters.  Armorial  bearings  appear  on  the  money  of 
Etlward  HI.,  and  the  Cross  gr.ulually  gave  ground,  but  did  not  tlisappear 
_  ,     .  ,,    before  the  time  of   Tames  I.      On  the  coinage  of  the  con- 

Cross  on  Jewish  -'  ^ 

'^°'"^-  tincnt  of  Europe  it  holds  its  place  to  this  day.      It  is  rather 

strange  that  the  very  shekel  of  the  Jews  bears  this  sign. 


The  Cross  on  Coins 


581 


In  America,  or  rather  in  Mexico  and  the  colonies,  about  tlie  middle 
of  the  last  century,  silver  coins  were  scarce.  The  most  common  was  a 
rudely  cut  and  stamped  Mexican  (or  Spanish)  piece,  still  on  American 
occasionally  to  be  found  in  brokers'  windows,  known  among  '^°'"^- 

numismatists  as  cob  money. 


Crosses  from  Anglo-Saxon  Coins.     From  Tlic  Art  Journal. 

The  Cross  being  placed  on  coins  naturally  gave  rise  to  many  proverbs 
and  allusions  in  the  drama  and  poems  of  bygone  days.  A  man  con- 
fessing his  poverty  would  exclaim,  "  I  have  never  a  cross  in  .-cross'-Used 
pocket  to  keep  the  Devil  away."      Priests  were  presumed  for"Co.n." 

to  be  armed  in  proof  against  his  Satanic  majesty,  for  in  those  happy  days 
"  they  being  never  without  money,  of  course  had  always  a  cross  in  their 
pockets."  ' 

Pierce  Penniless,  in  the  Supplication  to  the  Devil  \hy  Nash),  addresses 
the  Father  of  Evil  thus:  "  Whereas  your  impious  excellence  hath  had 
the  poor  tenement  of  my  purse  any  time  this  half  year  for  your  dancing 
schole,  and  yet  notwithstanding  hath  received  no  penye,  nor  crosse,"  etc. 

'  Gilpin,  Beehive  of  the  Romish  Chiireh,  p.  251. 


382 


History  of  the  Cross 


Skelton  sings : 

"  And  in  his  pouche 
The  Devil  might  dance  therein  for  any  crouche." 

"  Rare  Ben  Jonson  "  puns  on  the  word  several  times  in  his  Ei'i'ry 
Man  ill  his  Humour,  and  of  course  our  beloved  Shakespeare  plays  with  it 
as  none  other  could.  What  pictures  are  presented  to  our  mind's  eye, 
when  we  conjure  up  the  interview  between  Falstaff,  who  would  his 
"  waist  were  less,'"  and  the  Chief  Justice,  when  the  latter  replies  to  the 
request  of  the  Knight  for  a  loan  of  a  thousand  pounds: 


Pennies  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  William  Rufiis.     From  The  Art  yotii  iial. 

"  Not  a  penny,  not  a  penny;  you  are  too  impatient  to  bear  crosses."  ' 
And  again.  Touchstone: 

For  my  part  I  had  rather  bear  with  you,  than  bear  you;  yet  I 
should  bear  no  cross  if  I  did  bear  you;  for  I  think  you  have  no  money 
in  your  purse."  '' 

So  also  Massinger: 

What  would  you  have  ?  The  devil  sleeps  in  my  pocket.  I  have- 
no  cross  to  drive  him  out."  ' 

'  2(1  part,  II airy  IV.,  act  i.,  sc.  2. 
'  As  You  Lihe  It,  act  ii.,  sc.  4. 
'  Bashful  I.ovcrs,  act  iii.,  sc.  i. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE   BANNER   OF   THE   CROSS 

FROM  the  day  that  the  miraculous  Labaruui  led  the  army  of  the 
great  Christian  emperor  to  victory,  the  Cross  was  no  longer  the 
badge  of  shame,  but  the  standard  of  glory ;  and  the  succeeding  Roman 
emperors  followed  the  example  of  Constantine.      Julian,  the 

Julian  Displaces 

sole  exception,  replaced  the   Roman  Eagle,  but  the  Apos-    the  Cross  by  the 

1  Eagle. 

tate  soon  fell  before  the  just  vengeance  of  the  "  Galilean." 
Julian  was  the  last  of  the  family  of  Constantine.      The  first  had  recog- 
nized Christianity,  the  last  attempted  to  extinguish  it. 


Eabarum  from  the 
Catacombs. 


Labarum  from  a 
Coin. 


Labarum  from  the  Catacombs. 
From  Lee's  Glossary  of  Liturgical  and  Ecilcsiastital  Ttrvis, 

His  successor,  Jovian,  who  was  with  Julian  at  the  time  of  his  death, 
was  a  Christian,  and  on  his  return  to  Constantinople  he  displayed  the 

'  Wlien  Julian  received  his  death-wound  in  a  skirmish,  June  27,  A.D.  363,  he  caught  some  of 
his  blood  in  his  hand  and  threw  it  towards  heaven,  exclaiming,  "  Galilean  !  thou  hast  conquered." 
Theod.,  Eccles.  Hist.,  iii.,  25. 

383 


)S4 


History  of  the  Cross 


Labarum 
Resumed. 


Labarum,  which  had  been  prohibited  in  the  former  rei;:;!!.  Theodosius 
ascended  the  throne  in  A.D.  379,  and  issued  a  decree  that  none  should 
dare  to  worship  an  idol  by  sacrifice  in  the  Roman  Empire. 
It  was  on  this  occasion  that  he  surmounted  the  globe  with 
a  cross,  as  may  be  seen  on  his  coins.  Previously,  the  orb  had  been 
Orb  and  Cross,  crowncd  b)"  the  figure  of  Victory  or 
by  an  eagle.  After  doing  its  duty  for  two  h\in- 
dred  years,  the  Labarum  was  deposited,  a  vener- 
able relic,  at  Constantinople.' 

Justinian  succeeded  to  the  imperial  purple  in 
A.D.  527.  He  erected  a  statue  in  the  Augusteion, 
and  placed  in  its  hand  the  orb  and  cross,  which 
heretofore  had  been  confined  to  coins.  Justinian 
seemed  ambitious  of  distinction  in  little  things. 
He  modified  the  form  of  the  cross,  changing  it  to  that  which  is  known 
Greek  Cross.  as  the  Greek  cross,  and  also  bent  down  the  points  of  the 
tiara,  forming  the  crown  surmounted  by  the  cross,  which  became,  with 
slight  alterations,  the  standard  shape  to  this  day.^  One  hundred  years 
later  Heraclius  ga\-e  the  banner  of  the  Cross  to  the  breeze,  to  arouse  the 
valor  of  the  Roman  Christians  against  Chosroes,  and  from  that  time  the 
Cross  has  become  the  standard  of  Christendom.      Sometimes  it  was 


Coin  of  Constaiitine. 
From  KoUand's  Criiduna. 


"  a  natural  cross 
Of  rudest  form,  unpeeled,  e'en  as  it  grew 
On  the  near  oak  that  morn  "  ; 

at   others   it   was   richly   ornamented    with    gems   and    precious  metals. 
It  was   natural  that 


the  renown,  derived 
from  a  divine  origin, 
like  that  of  the  Laba- 
rum, should  lead  many 
to  claim  for  tluM'r  stand- 
ards a  similar  miracle. 
Spain  preserves  in  the 
Camera  Santa  at  Ovie- 
do  two  crosses  ;    the   one   made,   it   is  said,  by   angels  for  Alfonso  the 


Coin  of  Justinian. 
From  Walsh's  .-1  mirfrf  Cohis,  Mt'dah  atui  Ct-ins. 


'  (lililion,  Diiliiu-  niiii  Fall,  ch.ip.  xx. 


'  Walsh,  Essay  on  Coins,  ji.  121. 


The  Banner  of  the  Cross  385 

Great,  the  other,  of  hkc  siipcniatural  workmanship,  for  Pclayo,  in  the 
eighth  century.' 

Pisa  also  claims  angelic  parentage  for  her  flag.  It  is  a  cross  upon  a 
crimson  field.  The  story  runs  that  S.  Ephesus,  a  Roman  ofificer  in  the 
service   of   Diocletian,    was   commanded    to    persecute    the 

Flag  of  Pisa. 

■Christians  in  Sardinia.  On  his  way  to  execute  the  Em- 
peror's mandate,  he  was  warned  by  God  not  to  hurt  Mis  servants,  and 
he  and  his  companion  in  arms,  Politus,  became  converted  and  turned 
their  arms  against  the  heathen,  being  encouraged  by  the  gift  from  S. 
Michael  of  a  banner  woven  by  angelic  hands.  After  marvellous  suc- 
cesses, S.  Ephesus  was  taken  prisoner,  and  cast  into  a  furnace  of  fire, 
from  which  he  escaped  uninjured,  while  the  executioners  were  consumed 
by  the  flames.  At  length  both  Ephesus  and  Politus  suffered  martyrdom 
and  were  buried  in  Sardinia.  When  that  island  was  taken  by  the  forces 
of  Pisa  in  the  eleventh  century,  the  relics  of  the  two  martyrs  were  con- 
veyed in  solemn  pomp  to  the  Duomo  of  Pisa,  and  the  banner  of  Ephesus 
was  adopted  as  the  ensign  of  Pisa.''  The  legend  is  painted  in  the  Campo 
Santo  of  the  city  by  Spinello  Aretino. 

Denmark  likewise  asserts  supernatural  aid  in  the  origin  of  her  stand- 
ard. Her  ancient  banner,  consecrated  to  Odin,  was  a  raven,  termed 
Landcyda,  "  the  desolation  of  the  countrv,"  blazoned  on  a  -o-s       c 

-^         *  -   '  Flag  of 

light  ground  in  time  of  peace,  on  a  red  ground  in  time  of  Denmark, 

war.  The  present  national  flag,  the  Dancbrog,  i.  i\,  "  strength  of 
the  Danes,"  bears  a  white  cross  on  a  red  field.  One  tradition  is  that 
it  was  assumed  soon  after  the  introduction  of  Christianity.  Another, 
that  it  fell  from  Heaven  among  the  Danish  army  during  one  of  the 
crusades  of  Waldemar  the  Victorious,  in  Livonia,  1219.  The  battle  had 
been  desperate,  and  well-nigh  lost,  but  the  miraculous  gift  nerved  the 
soldiers  to  victory. 

The  supernatural  origin  of  the  Cross  of  Scotland  is  given 

Flag  of  Scotland. 

in  another  place. 

'  It  was  covered  with  gold  and  enamel  in  A. D.  908.  The  top  bears  this  inscription  :  "  Suscep- 
lum  placide  maneat  hoc  in  honorc  Dei  quod  offerunt  famuli  Christi  Adefonsus  Princeps  et  Sccm- 
ena  Regina."  On  the  right  arm,  ^^  Quisguis  aufcrre  /urc  douaria  nostra  presumpserit  fulmine 
Jivino  intereat  ipse."  On  the  left,  "Hoc  opus  perfectum  est,  concessutn  est  Sancto  Salvatoic 
Ovetensis  Sedis.  Hoc  Signo  tttetur  pi  us,  hoc  signo  vincitui  inimicus"  On  the  foot,  ^^  St 
cperatune  est  in  Castello  Gauzon  anno  Kegni  nostri  XVII  discurrenti  Era  DCCCCXLVI." — 
Southey,  Don  Roderick,  xxv.,  p.  738,  note. 

'■^  Millington,  Heraldry  in  History,  etc.,  p.  25. 


386 


History  of  the  Cross 


The  Carroccio. 


Among  the  standards  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  most  celebrated  was 
tlie  Carroccio.  It  is  said  to  have  been  first  used  by  Eribert,  Archbishop 
of  Milan,  in  1035  ;  he  did  not  originate,  but  only  revived  an 
ancient  practice  of  mounting  a  standard  upon  wheels.  The 
Carroccio  was  used  in  all  the  Italian  states,  but  the  most  noted  was  that 
of  Florence,  said  to  have  been  used  first  in  1228,  when  Florence  was  at 
war  with  Pistoia.  Upon  a  massive  car  on  four  low  wheels  were  two 
masts  bearing  the  great  red  and  white  banners  of  the  commonwealth. 
The  whole  machine  was  painted  vermilion  and  was  drawn  by  a  pair  of 
the  largest  oxen  that  could  be  procured,  covered  with  housings.  Those 
who  have  seen  Italian  cattle  know  what  elephantine  animals  they  must 
have  been.  The  oxen  were  kept  at  the  public  expense  for  the  exclusive 
use  of  the  Carroccio.  As  soon  as  war  was  proclaimed  the  nobles  and 
captains  of  the  city  proceeded  in  solemn  state  to  the  storehouse  of  the 
Church  of  S.  John,  where  the  vehicle  was  kept,  and  brought  it  forth  to 
the  market-place,  now  known  as  the  Mercato  Nuovo,  and  placed  it  upon 
a  stone  on  which  was  engraved  a  wheel. 

The  Carroccio  was  given  in  charge  of  a  band  of  youths,  with  a  solemn 
admonition  to  defend  it  at  all  hazards.  It  was  accompanied  by  a  second 
car  bearing  a  lofty  belfry  in  which  was  the  Martcllo,  or  great  war  bell, 
which  usually  hung  in  the  tower  of  a  small  church  near  the  station  of 
the  Carroccio,  and  one  month  previous  to  the  time 
of  the  arm\''s  taking  the  field  it  was  rung  day  and 
night,  from  a  chivalric  idea  that  the  enemy  should 
have  due  notice  of  the  intent  of  the  Florentines. 
^Mthough  often  the  standard  of  triumph,  }-et  fortune 
deserted  it,  and  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy 
in  the  battle  of  Montaperto,  September  4,  1260,  be- 
tween Siena  and  Florence.  Many  of  the  captive 
trophies  of  the  once  rival  cities  of  Italy  ha\'e  been 
restored  to  their  former  owners,  but  this  was  too 
dear  to  the  Sienese,  and  to  this  day  the  masts  are 
retained  in  their  Duomo.  Another  Carroccio  was 
made,  which  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  army  at  Lucca,  in  the  battle  of 
Altopascia,  September  23,  1325.' 

Among  modern  Italian  banners  the  most  significant  is  that  of  Venice. 

'  TroUope,  /fist,  of  Florence,  vol.  i.,  pp.  113,  155,  410. 


The  Carroccio.      Krom 
Holland's  Criuiana. 


The  Banner  of  the  Cross  3^7 

It  bears  the  Lion  of  S.  Murk,  linklin;^  in  his  right  paw  a  cross  in  the 
time  of  peace,  a  sword  in  that  of  war.  Flag  of  Venice. 

In  Great  Britain  the  earhest  instance  of  the  use  of  the  Cross  as  a 
standard  was  at  the  battle  between  Oswald  the  Saxon  and  Cadwalla  the 
Briton,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Hexam,  A.  I).  635.  A  rude  cross  in  Great 
cross  was  hastily  erected  by  the  Saxons,  the   King  himself  Bntam. 

assisting,  and  almighty  aid  was  implored.  A  church  w^as  afterwards 
erected  on  this  spot,  known  as  Havenfelth,  or  Heavenfield.' 

There  is  a  tradition  that  the  Britons  were  converted  to  Christianity 
by  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  and  that  one  of  his  earliest  disciples  was  King 
Arviragus,  or  Arvirigus.  The  latter  is  known  to  have  died  in  Gloucester- 
shire, and  the  ruins  of  a  bath  of  Romano-British  construction  have  of 
late  been  discovered  in  that  shire,  the  bricks  being  stamped  ARVIRI, 
agreeing  with  the  inscription  on  the  coins  of  that  monarch.  Near  this 
bath  are  the  remains  of  a  villa  of  similar  work;  and  upon  the  foundation- 
stone  is  the  monogram  ^.'  John  Harding,  whom  Southey  called  "  the 
worse  of  all  our  old  poets,"  says; 

"  Joseph  converted  this  king  Arviragus 
By  his  prech}'ing  to  know  ye  lawe  devine, 
And  baptized  hym  as  write  hath   Nenius 
The  Chronicles  in  Britain  tongue  full  fyne, 
And  to  Christe  lawe  made  hym  enclyne, 
And  gave  hym  then  a  shelde  of  silver  whte, 
A  cross  end  long  and  overthwart  full  perfect. 
These  arms  were  used  through  all  Britain 
For  a  common  signe,  eche  mane  to  know  his  name 
(And  thus  this  armes  by  Joseph's  creacion) 
Full  long  afore  Sainct  George  was  generate 
Were  worship't  here  of  mykell  elder  date." 

According  to  Thierry,  England  owes  her  cross  to  Pope  Alexander 
II.,  who  delivered  the  banner  to  William  of  Normandy  as  a  warrant  to 
invade  the  island.  The  Pope  also  presented  him  with  one  Given  by  Pope 
of  S.  Peter's  hairs  under  a  diamond.  The  standard  was  not  Alexander  11. 
original,  but  was  the  same  as  that  which  had  some  years  before  been 
planted   on   the   towns  of   Campania  in   Italy,    by   the   Norman  chiefs." 

'  Bede,  Eccles.  Hist.,  h.  iii.,  chap.  ii.  ■  Lysoiis,  Oi4>-  British  Ancestors,  p.  77. 

'  Thierry,  N'orman  Conquest,  b.  iii.  Amnng  other  traditions  about  .S.  George,  too  numerous 
to  be  mentioned  here,  we  read  that  he  renciered  miraculous  assistance  to  Godfrey  de  Bouillon. 
Richard  Coeur-de-lion  placed  himself  and  his  kingdom  under  the  protection  of  the  saint,  but  the 
S.  George's  cross  was  of  much  earlier  date. 


388  History  of  the  Cross 

William  bore  this  flag  at  his  masthead,  till  he  reached  his  "  land  of 
promise,"  when  it  was  committed  to  the  care  of  Foustain  le  Blanc. 
After  the  battle  of  Hastings,  1066,  the  Conqueror  placed  the  standard  on 
the  spot  which  had  been  occupied  by  that  of  the  defeated  Harold,  and 
in  commemoration  erected  Battle  Abbey." 

The  most  famous  local  banner  in  England  was  that  consecrated  to  S. 
Cuthbcrt,  tutelar  saint  of  Durham.  It  owed  its  sanctity  to  the  corporax 
_,    „  ,      cloth   used   by  the  saint,  which   was  enclosed  between  its 

The  Banner  of  .'  ' 

s.  Cuthbert.  folds.  It  was  always  deposited  in  the  cathedral,  and  a 
monk  of  Durham  had  the  honor  of  being  its  bearer  in  the  field.  A 
minute  description  of  it  as  renewed,  by  John  Fosser,  Prior  of  Durham 
in  1346,  has  been  preserv-ed.  Tlie  staff  was  fiv^e  yards  long,  surmounted 
by  a  cross,  the  transverse  was  terminated  with  wrought  knobs  and  bells, 
all,  except  the  staff,  of  silver.  The  banner-cloth  was  of  red  velvet,  in- 
dented in  five  parts,  at  the  bottom  of  which  were  fastened  three  silver 
bells;  both  sides  were  embroidered  with  flowers  of  green  silk  and  gold. 
In  the  midst,  a  square  half-yard  of  white  velvet,  bearing  on  both  sides 
a  cross  of  red  velvet ;  within  this  was  the  precious  relic.  This  banner 
was  considered  invincible.  One  of  the  early  kings  of  Scotland,  resting 
at  Durham  on  his  way  to  expel  a  usurper  from  his  throne,  was  warned 
by  a  \ision  that  if  he  took  the  banner  of  S.  Cuthbert  he  should  be  vic- 
torious. He  obeyed  the  supernatural  admonition,  and  was  rewarded  for 
his  faith.  When  David  of  Scotland  took  up  arms  for  his  niece  Matilda, 
and  invaded  England,  the  Norman  barons,  to  incite  the  English,  brought 
out  the  banners  of  the  Saxon  saints  from  the  Saxon  churches.  S.  Cuth- 
bert's,  S.  Wilfrid's  of  Ripon,  S.  John's  of  Beverley,  and  some  say  S. 
Peter's  of  York,  were  united  upon  a  rude  car,  somewhat  like  the  Car- 
roccio.  The  armies  met  at  Northallerton.  The  victory  was  ascribed 
specially  to  the  favor  of  S.  Cuthbert. 

'  The  ancient  national  flag  of  Engl.and,  tlie  Cross  of  .S.  George  (a  cross  gules),  received  the 
augmentation  of  the  Cross  of  .S.  Andrew  (azure,  a  Saltire  argent),  which  was  united  with  it,  in- 
stead of  being  quartered  upon  it  according  to  ancient  custom,  by  royal  proclamation,  April  12, 
1606.  To  avoid  contention,  it  was  ordered  that  all  ships  should  carry  the  red  cross  joined  with 
the  white  at  their  maintop,  but  that  the  South  Hritons  should  carry  at  their  foretop  the  red  cross 
and  the  North  IJritons  the  white.  Upon  the  union  with  Ireland,  January,  1801,  the  Cross  of  S. 
Patrick  (argent,  a  Saltire  gules)  was  combined  with  those  of  S.  George  and  S.  Andrew.  Thus, 
rather  awkwardly,  was  formed  the  Union  Jack.  The  white  edging  borders  the  red,  that  the 
heraldic  canon  may  not  be  violated  which  forbids  the  placing  of  one  color  upon  another. — Glossary 
of  Ihraldry,  "  Unicni  Jack." 


The  Hanncr  of  the  Cross  3^9 

"  E'en  Scotkuul's  dauntless  king  antl  lieir 
Before  his  banner  lied  " 

Hence  the  battle  is  known  as  that  of  THE  STANDARD.  The  banner  was 
used  by  Queen  PhiHppa  in  the  battle  of  Neville's  Cross  in  1346;  and  it 
was  again  displayed  at  Floddeii  in  1513,  when  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  halting 
at  Durham  Hall,  informs  us,  "  herde  masse  and  appoynted  with  the  Prior 
for  Sainct  Cuthbert's  banner."  But  alas!  it  lost  power  before  that  of 
the  arch-robber  Henry  VHI.,  and  at  the  dissolution  of  the  monastery  it 
was  burnt  by  Catherine,  wife  of  William  Whittingham,  Dean  of  Durham.' 
In  connection  with  the  legendary  jKirt  of  our  stibject  may  be  men- 
tioned the  banner  of  Prester  John.  This  myth  is  of  the  eleventh  cent- 
ury, and  Prester  John  is  mentioned  as  a  real  personage  by  Maimonidcs 
and  Benjamin  of  Tudela,  who  travelled  in  the  East  between  the  years 
1159-1173.  About  this  time  a  letter  appeared  in  Europe  from  this  mys- 
terious personage  addressed  to  M.mucl  Comnenus,  Emperor  of  Con- 
stantinople, and  similar  communications  were  sent  to  Alexander  HI., 
Louis  VH.  of  France,  and  other  monarchs.  After  describing  the  extent 
of  his  territory  and  his  wealth  and  magnificence,  he  says,  "  when  we  go 
to  war  we  have  fourteen  golden  and  bejewelled  crosses  borne  before  us 
instead  of  banners.  Each  of  these  crosses  is  followed  by  10,000  horse- 
men and   100,000  foot-soldiers,  without  reckoning  those  in 

Prester  John. 

charge  of  the  luggage  and  provisions.  When  we  ride  abroad 
plainly,  we  have  a  wooden,  unadorned  cross,  without  gold  or  gem  about 
it,  borne  before  us,  in  order  that  we  may  meditate  on  the  sufferings  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  also  a  golden  bowl  filled  with  earth,  to  remind  us 
of  that  whence  we  sprung,  and  that  to  which  we  must  return;  but  be- 
sides these  there  is  borne  a  silver  bowl  full  of  gold,  as  a  token  to  all  that 
we  are  the  Lord  of  Lords."  Prester  John  is  borne  on  the  arms  of  the 
See  of  Chichester,  England. 

From  old  England  the  transition  is  easy  to  New  England.  The 
ancient  standard  of  the  colonies  was  a  red  banner  with  a  red  cross  upon  a 
white  chief.    But  it  became  an  offence  to  the  Puritans.    Roger 

Cross  on  tlie 

Williams  was  probably  the  first  whose  weak  conscience  was     Banner  of  New 

England. 

troubled  about  it  as  "  a  badge  of  superstition,"  and  John 

Endicott  declared  that  it  was  idolatrous  to  allow  that  relic  of  Antichrist 

to  remain,  which  had  been  given  by  the  Pope  to  the  King  of  England. 

'  Millingen.  Heraldry,  p.  39  ;  Holland,  Criiciana,  p.  145  ;  Thierry,  Xorman  Conquest,  bk.  iii. 


o 


^ 


The  Banner  of  the  Cross 


391 


Being  supported  by  Governor  Winthrop  and  John  Cotton,  Endicott,  in 
1634,  publicly  cut  out  with  his  sword  the  Cross  from  the  flag.  His  act, 
however,  was  not  generally  approved,  for  Richard  Browne,  ruling  elder  of 
the  congregation  at  Watertown,  complained  of  the  deed,  fearing  lest  it 
might  be  construed  as  an  act  of  rebellion  by  the  mother  country. 
Richard  Davenport,  ensign-bearer  at  Salem,  for  imitating  Endicott,  was 
declared  by  the  Court  as  "  worthy  of  admonition,  and  disabled  from 
bearing  any  public  office  for  one  year."  '  Yet  proceedings  were  delayed, 
the  authorities  being  doubtful  of  the  lawful  use  of  the  cross  on  anv  en- 


sign.     It  was  proposed  that  red 


hite  roses  be  substituted,  but  the 


suggestion  was  not  adopted,  and  the  colonies  continued  to  use  the  Eng- 
lish flag  under  protest.  Sometimes  a  red  flag  with  a  blaze  of  white 
merely  was  displayed. 

In  December,  1686,  Sir  Edmund  Andros  brought  over  a  new  standard  : 
a  square  white  field  with  a  red  cross  of  S.  George ;  inscribed  upon  the 
latter  was  the  royal  cypher  surmounted  by  a 
crown  of  gold."  In  1704,  we  find  the  colonial 
flag  bearing  upon  a  red  field  a  white  canton 
with  a  red  S.  George's  cross.  In  the  first 
quarter  is  a  green  tree,  probably  a  pine,  which 
had  been  adopted  in  1652  upon  the  coinage.^ 
In  1705,  according  to  another  authority,  the 
standard  was  a  blue  field  with  a  white  canton 
and  a  S.  George's  cross,  with  a  globe  in  the 
first  quarter.  Probably  there  were  no  other 
changes  till  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  when,  in 
1775,  a  pine-tree  was  substituted  for  the  globe. 
This  was  the  flag  borne  at  Bunker  Hill.' 

When  the  colonies  revolted  against  the  op- 


S.  George's  Flag. 


pression  of  Great  Britain  some  standai'd  was  needed.     January  3,  177^' 
the    Continental    army   raised    a    banner    bearing    thirteen  Flag  of  the 

American 

stripes  in  the  field,  the  crosses  of  S.  George  and  S.  Andrew  colonies. 

in  a  canton.      Under  this  flag  the  first  fleet  left  Philadelphia  on  February 

'  Drake,  History  atut  Antiquities  of  Boston,  pp.  167,  16S  ;  The  Ameriean  Cyclotiedia, 
vol.  vii.,  p.  250. 

'  New  England  State  Papers,  vol.  iv.,  p.  223,  in  British  State  Paper  Office  ;  Arnold,  Hist, 
of  Rliode  Island.  ''Beaumont,  State  of  the  Universe. 

■■  Allard,  Niewe  Hollandre  Sehups-Bon  ;  Notes  and  Queries,  vol.  iii.,  pp.  72-74  ;  Lossing, 
Piitorial  Field  Book  of  the  Revolution,  vol.  i,,  p.  541. 


392  History  of  the  Cross 

gth  of  the  same  year.  Yet  this  was  not  adopted  as  the  standard,  for  on 
February  i/th  a  fleet  left  the  Delaware  capes  bearing  a  rattlesnake  on 
a  yellow  field,  the  striped  Jack  and  ensign,  also  a  S.  George's  ensign, 
,,  ..  ,  e.  .  etc.      On  the   14th  of  June,    1777,   Congress   resolved  that 

United  States  ~  -'  '        /  /  /  '  o 

'^'^B-  the  national  standard  should  be  thirteen  stripes,  alternately 

red  and  white,  and  thirteen  stars,  white  on  a  blue  canton.  This  design 
is  said  to  have  been  originated  by  Washington. 

A  star  and  stripe  was  added  on  the  admission  of  each  new  State  until 
1818,  when  a  return  was  ordered  to  the  original  number  of  stripes,  that 
of  the  stars  only  to  be  increased. 

There  are  about  thirty  nations,  provinces,  and  cities  which  bear  a  cross, 
Nations  who  Bear  i0  gome  form  Or  Other,  as  their  standard,'  yet,  with  a  few  e.x- 

the  Cross  as 

their  Standard,     ccptions,  they  possess  but  little  of  general  interest. 

The  banner  of  the  Shah  of  Persia  flutters  in  the  breeze,  a  page  of 
history  in  itself,  or  rather  like  a  string  of  wampum  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can Indians,  recording  in  symbolic  language  the  annals  of 

Flag  of  Persia. 

the  nation.  It  is  composed  of  five  horizontal  bars,  the 
upper  and  lower  one  being  blue;  the  second  and  fourth  yellow;  and  the 
middle  one  green.  The  blue  bars  are  charged  with  three  stars  of  si.x 
rays,  and  the  crescents  of  yellow;  the  green  bears  a  naked  sword,  the 
handle  towards  the  staff;  beyond  are  two  crescents  with  a  white  star  be- 
tween them  ;  the  yellow  are  charged  with  two  crosses,  red.  It  seems  as 
if  the  history  of  the  Ancient,  Middle,  and  Modern  Ages  were  here  in- 
scribed, the  stars  being  symbolic  of  the  old  Sabjeanism.  the  sword, 
crescents  and  the  captive  crosses  telling  of  some  bygone  victory  of  Mo- 
hammedanism over  Christianity. 

Tlie  flag  of  the  Pasha  of  Turkey  tells  a  somewhat  similar  story.      In 

the  middle  of  a  blue  field  is  a  yellow  cross  placed  horizontally,  \\ith  the 

transverse  beam  next  to  the  staff.      Upon  the  middle  of  the 

Flag  in  Turkey. 

main  liml),  enclosed  within  a  circle,  are  three  crescents, 
white;  the  conve.K  side  turned  towards  the  foot  of  the  Cross.  The 
whole  is  probably  emblematic  of  the  conquests  of  the  Moslem  over  the 
soldiers  of  the  Cross  in  the  Crusades. ° 

'  Norway,  Sweden.  Pol.ind,  Hanover,  Holland,  Calais,  Diinlurk.  Spain,  Portugal,  Biscay, 
Prussia,  Oldenlnirgh,  Riga,  Malta,  Sardinia,  Genoa,  Lcgliorn,  Marseilles,  etc.  In  .America, 
Venezuela  and  Hrazil. 

'  The  crescent,  it  may  be  noted,  is  not  contemporaneous  with  Mosleinism.  True,  it  now 
crowns  the  great  mosques  at  Constantinople,  but  it  is  not  found  in  early  work.     It  is  simply  the 


The  Banner  of  the  Cross 


393 


As  an  offset  to  this,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  spires  in  many  of  the 
cities  in  Russia  bear  a  cross  surmounting;  the  crescent,  indicating  that 
the  city  had  been  retaken  from  the  Tartars;  but  in  Novgo- 

Cross  over  the 

rod  the  Cross  alone  is  exhibited,    showing  that   tiiat   city  crescent  in 

•       •  Russia. 

never  was  ruled  but  by  Christians. 

The  Crimean  War  gave  birth  to  a  singular 
banner.  In  the  frontier  provinces  of  Turkey, 
Bosnia,  Servia,  and   Bulgaria,  the 

In  the  Crimea 

people  being  composed  of  Christ- 
ians and  Mohammedans,  the  banners  bore  the    ^ 
emblems  of  both  religions,  one  half  being  red, 
charged  with  the  crescent,  the  other  half  bear- 
ing a  red  cross." 

There  is  one  standard  too  pregnant  with 
meaning  to  be  passed  by  without  notice.  It 
is  that  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition,     standard  of  the 

It-  ,  Inquisition. 

a   banner  bearing  a  cross,  rough 

with  knots,  having  a  sword  on  one  side,  and  '" 

an   olive  branch    on  the  other,  with  the  inscrip-  Bannerof  the  Spanish  Inquisition. 
^  ^  .  ^         From  Holland's  Cruciana. 

tion     Exiirge,  Doniiiic,  ct judica  causam  tuain. ' 

It  is  significant  that  the  olive,  the  symbol  of  peace,  is  only  a  branch  f«/ 

oj/';  it  has  no  root,  and  the  sword  is  imsJicathcd. 

trophy  of  the  conqviest  of  the  ancient  Byzantium,  of  which  it  was  the  symbol,  that  town  having 
been  saved  from  a  surprise  one  night  by  tlie  timely  apjiearance  of  the  new  moon.  Constanti- 
nople was  not  captured  by  the  Turks  until  1473. 

'  Stephens,  Travels  in  Greece,  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Poland,  vol.  ii.,  p.  94. 

'  London  Globe,  Jan.  ig,  1854. 


T/  r\% 


,;5 


\^ 


c 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   COLOR   OF   THE   CROSS   IN   ART 

OLORS,"  says  De  Portal,  "  had  the  same  significance  amongst 
all  nations  of  remotest  antiquity;  this  conformity  indicates  a 
common    origin,  which    extends   to    the    earliest    state    of 

Symbolism  of 

Colors  among       humanity,  and  develops  its  highest  energies  in  the  religion 

the  Ancients. 

of  Persia;  the  dualism  of  light  and  darkness  presents,  in 
effect,  the  two  types  of  colors  which  become  the  symbols  of  two  principles, 
benevolence  and  malevolence.  The  ancients  admitted  but  two  primitive 
colors,  white  and  black,  whence  all  others  were  derived ;  the  divin-ities  of 
Paganism  were  likewise  emanations  of  the  good  and  evil  principles. 

The  language  of  colors,  intimately  connected  with  religion,  passed 
into  India,  China,  Eg\'pt,  Greece,  Rome,  reappeared  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  the  windows  of  Gothic  cathedrals  found  their  explanation  in  the 
books  of  the  Zends,  the  Vedas,  and  the  paintings  of  Egyptian  temples."  ' 
Early  Christians  were  scrupuloush'  mindful  of  the  mystic  signification 
of  colors.  The  earliest  crosses  were  usually  red  ;  the  primary  symbolism 
Color  of  Early  '-'^  '-^^'^'-  color  being  love,  strictly  speaking  the  love  of  man  to 
Crosses.  QqJ  .  jignce  its  appropriateness  in  the  Cross  of  the  incarnate 

God  when  paying  the  penalty  due  by  man  to  his  Maker. 

The  Cross  blushes,  and  is  dyed  in  the  blood  of  the  Lord,"  writes 
S.  Paulinus,  Bishop  of  Nola,  to  his  friend  Sulpicius  Severus,  and  he 
placed  these  words  beside  two  crimson  crosses : 

"  Ardiia  florifera  crux  cingifur  orhe  coroncs, 
Et  Domini  ftiso  tiiicta  criiore  rubct." 

Even  amoiig  pagan  nations  love  was  symbolized  by  red.     Jupiter  or 

Zeus,  and  Life,  Heat,  and  Fire,  when  deified,  are  robed  in  red. 

In  later  art,  the  Cross  is  painted  green,  symbolical  of  regeneration, 

'  De  Portal  on  Symbolic  Colors,  [i.  i. 
39» 


The  Color  of  the  Cross  in  Art  395 

charity,  and  hope.  In  the  windows  of  S.  Denis,  and  of  S.  ChapcUe,  in 
Paris,  and  in  those  of  the  cathedrals  of  Bourges,  Chartres,  and  Rheinis, 
and  in  many  manuscripts,  "  the  Cross  is  a  tree  with  the  branches  lopped 
and  covered  with  a  greenish  bark."  ' 

Even  when  no  longer  a  tree,  but  squared  by  the  carpenter,  in  glass 
and  elsewhere,  the  Cross  is  green  sometimes  edged  with  yellow.  At 
times  the  cross  appears  almost  a  mere  trellis  supporting  the  symbolic 
vine  which  overspreads  it  with  its  mystic  branches  and  clusters  of  grapes, 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  Abbey  of  S.  Denis. 

Occasionally  the  cruciform  nimbus  of  our  Lord  is  tinged  with  green, 
especially  when  represented,  as  at  Bourges,  in  the  washing  of  the 
Apostles'   feet,  the  Last  Supper,  His  arrest  in  the  garden. 

Green  Nimbi. 

His  descent  into  Hell,  etc.     The  color  is  particularly  appro- 
priate in  the  last  instance,  speaking  of  hope  and  of  the  final  resurrection 
which  would  welcome  those  Saints,  then  absent   from  the  Lord,  to  the 
green  pastures  of  the  great  Shepherd. 

Sometimes  the  green  cross  is  bordered  with  red,  exhibiting  charity 
and  love,  as  in  the  large  windows  of  the  cathedral  at  Chartres. 

Other  colors  were  used,  though  not  commonly,  except  in  heraldry  : 
blue,  because  that  symbolizes  divine  truth,  divine  eternity,  and  human 
immortality  ;   white,    because   it    is    the    symbol   of   divine 

other  Colors. 

wisdom,  the  color  of  light,  whose  visible  source  is  the  image 
of  the  invisible  Creator.  "  It  is  to  make  the  Cross  a  centre  of  light  that 
it  is  represented  loaded  with  diamonds  and  flashing  stones;  it  is  to  en- 
velop it  with  flashing  fire  that  it  is  surrounded  with  stars  as  [in  the 
Church  of  S.  ApoUinare  in  Classe]  at  Ravenna;  but  even  then,  the  Cross 
itself  is  more  radiant  than  the  constellations  around  it,  and  the  Church 
exclaims,  '  O  Crux  splendidior  astris/  "  ' 

A  white  cross  was  formerly  placed  in  the  hands  of  those  cross  for  the 
banished   by  the  Church,    which   they   retained   until   they  Banished, 

reached  the  nearest  seaport." 

'  Labarte,  Handbook  of  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  xviii.  At  an  exhibition  of  specimens  of  medi- 
aeval art  ill  London,  in  1861,  there  was  a  crimson  velvet  chasuble  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Upon 
it  was  represented  Christ  suspended,  not  from  a  cross,  but  a  veritable  tree,  leafless  and  lopped 
of  its  branches.  A^ein  York  Post,  May,  1S61.  "  It  must  be  remarked  that  in  paintings,  church 
windows,  and  enamels  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  body  of  the  Cross  is  almost  always  green." 
Drouyn,  Cross  of  Professions,  etc.,  p.  2.  In  the  windows  of  Bourges,  the  Cross  in  the  hands  of 
Isaac,  and  of  the  son  of  the  Widow  of  Sarepta,  are  green. 

*  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  413.  ^  Palgrave,  Merchant  and  Friar,  p.  iSg. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE   ORDEAL   OF   THE   CROSS 

AS  God  had  promised  to  take  cognizance  of  the  violation  of  one  of 
the  most  sacred  of  earthly  duties  and  obHgations,  by  appoint- 
waterof  ''^&  '■'-'   ^'^  °^^'^  people  the  trial  by  the  water  of  jealousy 

Jealousy.  (Num.  V.,  17-31 ),  an  ordeal  so  fearful  that  we  have  no  record 

of  its  ever  being  employed,'  it  is  not  strange  that  in  the  ages  of  supersti- 
tion an  appeal  to  the  Omnipotent  Judge  was  often  invoked  in  matters 
which  seem  to  us  of  later  times  too  tri\'ial  for  such  awful  solemnity. 
Hence  the  ordeals  of  hot  or  cold  water,  red-hot  ploughshares,  etc.,  in 
all  of  which  faith  or  fraud  played  their  parts  as  aptly  as  when  the  Vestal 
virgin,  Tucca'^  of  Rome,  washed  her  chastity  pure  from  stain  by  bearing  a 
sieve  of  water  from  the  Tiber  to  the  Temple. 

The  Ordeal  of  the  Cross  was,  apart  from  miraculous  aid,  one  of  mere 
physical  strength.  The  accused  and  the  accuser  stood  with  arms  either 
Ordeal  of  the  Uplifted,  as  in  supplication,  or  extended,  like  the  suffering 
''■'°^^-  victim    upon   the  cross,   while  the   appropriate    portions   of 

divine  service  were  being  performed.  Victory  in  such  a  case  was  a  mat- 
ter either  of  muscle  or  miracle. 

The  earliest  allusion  to  this  form  of  trial  that  we  can  find  occurs  in 
a  CapitJilary  of  Pepin  le  Bref,  in  752,'  where  it  is  ordered  in  case  of  an 
application  by  a  wife  for  dissolution  of  marriage.  Charlemagne  recog- 
nized its  validity;  even  decreeing  in  the  division  of  his  empire,  A.D.  806, 
that  territorial  disputes  should  be  thus  settled.'  The  e.xtremest  charity 
was  shown  in  this  ordeal,  for  by  the  Capitulary  of  816,  in  cases  of  debility, 

'  Unless  we  receive  as  fact  the  account  in  the  Ajiocryphal  Cospel  of  Nicodemus,  where  the 
blessed  Virgin  clears  herself  liefore  the  eyes  of  the  priest  l)y  this  test. 
''  Brewster,  Letters  of  Natural  Magic. 
'  Henry  C.  Lea,  Superstition  and  Force,  p.  231. 

*  Lea  gives  a  number  of  references  to  capitularies  of  this  monarch,  p.  230. 

396 


The  Ordeal  of  the  Cross  397 

a  stronger  champion  might  be  selected.'  By  this  ordeal  S.  Lioba,  Ab- 
bess of  Bischoffsheim,  vindicated  the  innocence  and  honor  of  her  con- 
vent, which  had  been  charged  with  crime,  owing  to  the  discovery  of  an 
infant  drownetl  in  a  neighboring  lake." 

Louis  le  Debonnaire,  considering  this  ordeal  as  tending  to  bring  the 
Cross  into  contempt,  at  the  Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  A.D.  8i6,  [jro- 
hibited  it.  His  son  Lothaire  repeated  his  order,  but  the  regulation  ap- 
pears to  have  been  respected  only  in  the  Rhenish  Provinces  and  in  Italy, 
and  Louis  himself  retracted  it  on  the  division  of  his  succession  between 
his  sons,  and  allowed  its  use  in  the  settlements  of  disputed  boundaries.^ 

Gretser  included  among  the  varieties  of  Ordeal  by  the  Cross,  one 
which  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  judgment  by  lot.  By  the  ancient  Frisian 
laws,   when  a  man  was  killed  in  a  sedition,    or  a  popular 

Cross  in  Lots. 

tumult,  and  the  homicide  could  not  be  discovered,  seven 
men  were  taken,  combatants,  who  indi\-idually  took  the  oath  of  denial 
with  twelve  conjurators.  Two  twigs,  precisely  alike,  except  that  one 
was  marked  with  a  cross,  were  wrapped  in  white  wool  and  reverently 
placed  upon  the  altar,  or,  if  there  were  no  neighboring  church,  upon  the 
relic  of  some  saint.  God  was  invoked  to  declare  the  truth.  The  priest, 
or  an  innocent  boy,  drew  the  lot.  If  it  was  the  rod  marketi  with  the 
Cross,  the  defendants  were  pronounced  innocent,  if  the  unmarked  one, 
then  the  criminal  was  supposed  to  be  among  them.  Each  then  chose  a 
similar  rod,  and  having  marked  it,  they  were  rolled  up  and  placed  as  be- 
fore upon  the  altar  and  drawn.  The  one  to  whom  the  last  lot  fell  was 
pronounced  guilty  and  compelled  to  pay  the  ivclir-gcld.^ 

According  to  Brady,  the  Ordeal  of  the  Cross  was  instituted  for  the  test 
of  truth  between  freemen,  or  persons  of  condition,  and  was  superintended 
by  the  clergy;  while  the  Ordeals  by  Fire,  or  Water,  were  for  people  in 
the  lower  ranks  of  life,  whose  offences  were  to  be  punished  by  the  secu- 
lar powers.'' 

'  Lea,  Superstition  and  Force,  p.  231. 

'  Rudolph,  VitiE  S.  Lioha,  cap.  15  ;  Gretser,  De  Cruce,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  21  ;  Ducange,  Crticis 
yudicum . 

'  Longobard,  lib.  ii.,  tit.  v.,  §  32. 
*  Gretser,  De  Cruce,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  21. 
^  Clavis  Calendaria,  vol.  ii.,  p.  259. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE   ADORATION   OF   THE   CROSS 


T 


HE  early  Christians  were  charged  with  idolatrous  adoration  of  the 
Cross  by  the  Apostate  Julian,  but  they  replied  that  the  homage 
was  paid  to  Him  who  was  hanged  upon  the  Cross,  and  not 

Early  Christians 

Charged  with       to  tlic  instrument  of  torture  itself.      With   this  explanation 

Idolatry. 

even  John  Huss  allowed  the  use  of  the  phrase  adoration. 
It  is  asserted  that  the  custom  is  as  old  as  the  finding  of  the  Cross,  and 
originated  from  the  exhibition  of  a  piece  of  it,  which  was  exposed  for 

Antiquity  of  the  vencration  of  the 
the  Custom.  faithful  at  Jerusalem 
every  Good  Friday.  "  The  wise 
Helena,"  says  S.  Ambrose,  "  wor- 
shipped not  the  wood  of  the  Cross, 
but  Him  who  was  crucified  on  the 
wood;  that  would  be  a  heathenish 
error,  a  \-anity  of  im[)iiuis  men.  but 
she  worshipped  Him  who  hung  up- 
on the  Cross."  Yet,  by  the  time 
of  Sophronius,  Patriarch  of  Jeru- 
salem, who  died  after  the  taking 
of  that  city,  .\. D.  639,  the  rite  of 
salutation  of  the  Cross  on  the  an- 
niversary of  our  Lord's  death  was  lost  in  that  Church. 

In  the  Church  of  Constantinople  it  continued  until  the  eiglith  century, 
after  whicli  we  find  no  mention  of  it,  except  an  incidental  reference  to 
the  transferring  of  the  ceremony  from  Good  l'"iiday  to  tlie  third  Sunday 
in  Lent.      A  letter  of  S.  Ambrose  shows  that  the  custom  was  extant  in 

398 


The  Adoration  of  the  Cross. 
From  Holland's  Crnciana. 


The  Adoration  of  the  Cross  399 

his  day,  and  tliis  is  confirmed  by  tlic  Sacraiiuulary  of  S.  Gelasius,  and 
the  Aiitiphony  of  S.  Gregory. 

S.  Aldhelm,  who  hved  in  the  seventh  century,  styled  the  Christians 
Crucicolce,  or  worshippers  of  the  Cross.  Alcuin,  a  few  years  later,  was 
always   accustomed   to   bow   to   the  Cross,    and   repeat   his 

Crucicolae. 

prayer,  "  Tiiain  criiccm  adoraiiius,  Douniu\  tiiain  gloriosaui 
recoliiniis passioiu'in  ;  miserere  tiostri."  '  Yet  that  the  worship  or  respect 
paid  to  the  Cross  was  not  idolatrous  is  plain,  from  the  prayer  composed 
by  Alcuin,  and  from  a  passage  in  the  Saxon  Homilies :  "  We  bow  our- 
selves to  the  Cross,  not  indeed  to  the  wood,  but  to  the  Almigiity  Lord 
who  hung  on  it  for  us."  '^ 

It  is  declared  by  some  that  the  Romish  Church  commands  that  latria, 
or  the  highest  worship,  paid  only  to  God,  should  be  offered  to  the  Cross. 
We  must  allow  the  credit  of  the  denial  of  Lingard,  and  also 

Latria. 

the  benefit  of  the  decree  of  the  second  Council  of  Nice. 

In  the  seventh  session  of  the  above  Council,  held  October  13,  787, 
it  was  declared  that  "  Salutation  and  the  adoration  of  honor  ought  to 
be  paid  to  images,  but  not  the  worship  of  latria,  which  be- 

Council  of  Nicaea. 

longs  to  God  alone;  nevertheless,  it  is  lawful  to  burn  lights 
before  them,  and  to  incense  them,  as  it  is  usually  done  with  the  Cross, 
the  books  of  the  Gospels,  and  other  sacred  things,  according  to  the  pious 
use  of  the  ancients.  For  the  honor  so  paid  is  transmitted  to  the  original, 
which  it  represents.  Such  is  the  doctrine  of  the  holy  Fathers,  and  the 
tradition  of  the  Catholic  Church ;  and  we  order  that  they  who  dare  to 
think  or  teach  otherwise,  if  bishops,  or  other  clerks,  shall  be  deposed;  if 
monks  or  laymen,  shall  be  excommunicated."  ' 

Martiall,  quoting  from  Athanasius,  not  only  answers  the  silly  objection 
to  the  use  of  the  Cross  as  liable  to  the  charge  of  senseless  idolatry,  but 
also  refutes  those  who  demand,  "  why  not  worship  the  speare,  reede, 
and  sponge  being  holy  as  the  crosse  ?  answereth  and  saith,  we  may  easily 
separate  and  dissolve  those  ii  pieces  of  wood,  and  defacinge  the  forme 
and  figure  of  the  crosse  by  accomptinge  them  but  mere  wood.  Reverence  for 
but  the  figure  and  sign  of  the  Crosse,  persuade  the  same  in-  "^^  ^'S" 

fidel,  that  we  worship  not  the  wood,  but  the  figure  and  sign  of  the  cross; 
of  the  speare,  reede,  and  sponge  we  cannot  do,  nor  shewe  the  same."  * 

'  Lingard,  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  p.  174,  note.  "Ibid.,  p.  174- 

^  Landon,  Manual  of  Councils,  "  Nicrea,  Second  Council." 
•■  Martiall,   Treatise  of  the  Crosse,  p.  S4. 


400  History  of  the  Cross 

Jonas,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  in  the  ninth  century,  defends  the  adoration 
of  the  cross,  "  ob  rccorJatioucin  passioiiis  doiniiii,"  but  explains  the  act 
to  mean  no  more  than  "  Salutarc."  ' 

It  appears,  however,  that  some  prelates  did  suppose  that  latria  was 
paid  to  this  symbol,  for  we  find  Claudius,  Bishop  of  Turin,  A.D  821-839, 
not  only  excluding  from  churches  invocations  of  saints,  but  all  images, 
pictures,  and  crosses,  which  coukl  possibly  give  rise  to  adoration. 

In  the  Roman  Pontifical  the  rubric  commands,  that  in  the  procession, 
or  receiving  of  an  emperor,  if  the  Apostolic  legate  receive  him,  or  enter 
the  city  with  him,  or  go  with  him  elsewhere,  either  on  horseback  or  other- 
wise, he  who  bears  the  sword  before  the  emperor,  and  he  who  carries  the 
legate's  cross  ought  to  go  together.  The  Cross  shall  be  carried  in  the 
right  hand,  because  latria  is  due  to  it,  and  the  sword  of  the  emperor  in 
the  left  hand. 

The  Council  of  Trent  declined  to  give  a  clear  decision  in  this  matter, 

only  desiring  that  due  worship  should  be  given  to  images,  but  did  not 

define  what  that  "  due  worship  "  was.      It  confirmed  the 

Council  of  Trent. 

decrees  of  the  second  Nicene  Council,  and,  in  particular, 
made  use  of  its  maxim  that  the  honor  of  the  Type  goes  to  the  Proto- 
type.     Criici  dcbctur  latria,  sa\-s  the  Pontifical. ° 

In  the  prayer  in  the  Consecration  of  a  Cross,  the  Roman  Church  im- 
plores "  that  the  blessing  of  that  Cross  on  which  Christ  hung,  may  be  in 
it,  that  it  may  be  a  healthful  remedy  to  mankind,  a  strengthener  of 
faith,  an  increase  of  good  works,  the  redemption  of  souls,  and  a  com- 
fort, protection,  and  defence  against  the  cruelt}-  of  our  enemies."  "It 
would  seem  that  latria  is  given  to  all  those  images  to  the  originals  of 
which  it  is  due;  and  in  like  proportion  diilia  and  Itypcrdiilia  to  other 
images."  ^ 

That  the  majority  of  Roman  Catholics  supposed  latria  to  be  the 
pro])er  worship  of  the  Cross  we  can  also  judge  from  the  story  of  Imbert, 
Prior  of  Gascony,  who  was  severely  prosecuted  in  16S3  for  telling  the. 
people  that,  in  the  ceremony  of  adoring  the  Cross  practised  in  that 
church  on  Good  P'riday,  they  were  not  to  adore  the  wood,  but  Christ 
who  was  crucified  upon  it.  Tlie  curate  of  the  parish  told  them  the  con- 
trary; it  was  the  wood  that  they  were  to  adore!     Imbert  was  cited  be- 

'  Di-  Ciiliu  Imaiiinuni  in  Rild.  Palriim  (ed.  Liigdun.),  vol.  xiv.,  fol.  183. 

'  liurnct,  oil  tlif  XWIX  nrlicles,  art.  \.\II,  y.  2S2.  '* Ibid. 


The  Adoration  of  the  Cross  401 

fore  the  Archbisliop  of  Bordeaux,  suspended  from  liis  functions,  and 
even  threatened  with  chains  and  perpetual  imprisonment. 

By  ^-Elfric's  Canons,  A.D.  957,  the  faithful  were  required  to  pay  their 
adoration,  and  greet  God's  rood  with  a  kiss.  "  We  humble  ourselves  to 
Christ  herein,"  Craumer  says,  "  offering  unto  Him,  and  kissing  the  Cross 
in  memory  of  our  redemption  by  Christ  on  the  Cross."  The  practice 
was  forbidden  in  1549,  but  was  observed  at  Duntjar,  in  1568,  by  the  con- 
gregation, barelegged  and  barefooted.  During  the  ceremonial  the 
hymns  Range  lingua  and  Vexilla  regis  p7-odcuiit  were  sung,  followed  by 
the  Impropcria,  or  reproaches,  an  expansion  of  Malaclii  iii.,  3,  4. 

Charles  Clarke  '  considers  that  the  Saxons  meant  by  worshipping  the 
Cross  only  the  payment  of  respect  and  reverence.  The  wise  men  among 
that  nation  were  called  worshipworthy.  Again  it  is  said  that  Meaning  of  the 
the  Lady  Eadgith,  or  Editha,  Queen  of  Edward  the  Confes-  word  worship, 
sor,  in  1075,  was  brought  to  Westminster  "  with  great  worship."  "  The 
English  retain  the  meaning  of  worship  in  the  address  of  mayors  and  magis- 
trates as  "  Your  worship,"  and  corporations  are  termed  "  right  worshipful 
companies."  Yet  again  the  Bridegroom  in  the  Order  of  Matrimony  in  the 
English  Church  declares  to  the  I^ride,  "  with  my  body  I  thee  worship." 
That  our  ancestors  only  paid  due  veneration  seems  clear  from  the  very 
wording  of  the  following  extract  from  an  instrument  dated  November 
25,  1449,  concerning  the  churchyard  of  S.  Mary  Magdalene  in  Milk  Street, 
London,  in  which  it  is  stated  that  on  a  piece  of  "  voidegrounde  "  on  the 
west  side  of  the  street,  there  "  stode  a  crosse  of  the  height  of  a  man  or 
more;  and  that  the  same  crosse  was  worshipped  by  the  parishioners 
there,  as  crosses  be  coininonly  worshipped  in  other  churchyards."  '  This 
may  imply  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  "  worship,"  but  there  is  good 
reason  for  thinking  it  is  the  latter. 

Dr.  Grant,  when  travelling;  among-  the  Nestorians,  on  one  occasion 
was  led  by  one  of  their  bishops  to  a  plain  stone  cross  which  lay  upon  the 
altar,  supposing  that  he  would  manifest  his  reverence  and 

Reverence  to 

devotion  after  their  own  custom,  by  pressing  his  lips  upon  Cross  among  the 

Nestorians. 

it.     "  There  is  something,"  he  adds,  "  very  affecting  in  this 

simple  outward  e.xpression,  as  practised  by  the  Nestorians,  who  mingle 

with  it  none  of  the  image  worship,  or  other  corrupt  observances  of  the 

'  Britton,  Architt'ctitral  Anliquitics,  vol.  i.,  p.  93. 

'  Saxon  Chronicle,  p.  183.  ^  Achaologia,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  igg. 

26 


402  History  of  the  Cross 

Roman  Catholic  Church.  May  it  not  be  that  the  abuse  of  sucli  symbols 
by  the  votaries  of  the  Roman  See  has  carried  us  Protestants  to  the  other 
extreme,  when  we  utterly  condemn  the  simple  memento  of  the  Cross?  "  ' 
We  cannot  better  sum  up  than  in  the  words  of  Ruskin  ;  "  It  is  utterly 
impossible  for  one  man  to  judge  of  the  feeling  with  which  another  bows 
„    ,.        „         clown  before  an  image.      From  that  pure  reverence  in  which 

Ruskin  on  Rever-  o  r 

ence  to  the  Cross.  g||.  xiiomas  Brownc  wrote,  '  I  can  dispense  with  my  hat  at 
the  sight  of  a  cross,  but  not  with  a  thought  of  my  Redeemer,'  to  the 
worst  superstition  of  the  most  ignorant  Romanist,  there  is  an  infinite 
series  of  subtle  transitions;  and  the  point  where  simple  reverence  and 
the  use  of  the  image  merely  to  render  conception  more  vivid,  and  feeling 
more  intense,  change  into  definite  idolatry  by  the  attribution  of  Power 
to  the  image  itself,  is  so  difficultly  determinable  that  we  cannot  be  too 
cautious  in  asserting  that  such  a  change  has  actually  taken  place  in  the 
case  of  any  individual.  Even  when  it  is  definite  and  certain,  we  shall 
oftencr  find  it  the  consequence  of  dulness  of  intellect  than  of  real  aliena- 
tion of  heart  from  God;  and  I  have  no  manner  of  doubt  that  half  of  the 
poor  and  untaught  Christians  who  are  this  day  lying  prostrate  before 
crucifixes,  Bambinos,  and  Volto  Santos,  are  finding  more  acceptance 
with  God  than  many  Protestants  who  idolize  nothing  but  their  own 
opinions,  or  their  own  interests.  I  believe  that  those  who  have  wor- 
shipped the  thorns  of  Christ's  crown  will  be  found  at  last  to  have  been 
holier  and  wiser  than  those  who  worship  the  thorns  of  the  world's  service, 
and  that  to  adore  the  nails  of  the  Cross  is  less  a  sin  than  to  adore  the 
hammer  of  the  workman.""  What  lover  of  art  or  of  Christianity  but 
responds  from  his  heart,  Amen  ! 

The  custom  of  creeping  to  the  Cross  on  Good  Friday  is  clearly  a  token 
Creeping  to  the  ^^  profound  rcvcrencc  rather  than  adoration  of  the  Cross. 
^'°^^-  It  seems  to  have  been  peculiar  to  the  Church  in  England. 

In  an  original  proclamation  dated  the  26th  of  Februar\-,  1530,  Henry 
VIII.,  we  read:  "  On  Good  Friday  it  shall  be  declared  howe  creepinge 
to  the  Crosse  signifieth  an  humblinge  of  ourselfe  to  Criste,  before  the 
Crosse,  and  the  kissinge  of  it  in  mcmorie  of  our  redemption  made  upon  the 
Crosse."  We  also  find  noted  in  A  S/iort  Description  of  Anti-Christ ,  etc., 
"  a  custom  of  creeping  to  the  Cross  with  eggs  and  apples."  We  are  at 
a  loss  to  understand  the  meaning  of  tlie  last,  unless  it  was  to  put  people 

'  Grant,  A'cstorians,  vol.  i.,  p.  32.  '  Ruskin,  Stones  of  Venice,  vol.  ii.,  p.  387. 


The  Adoration  of  the  Cross  403 

in  miiul  n{  the  fall  of  man  by  the  forbitklcii  fruit,  and  the  assurance  of 
his  salvation  by  the  Resurrection,  of  which  the  eg^  was  used  in  early 
times  as  an  emblem. 

At  the  sale  of  the  MSS.  belonging  to  Mr.  Anstis,  Garter  King-of- 
arms,  the  Duchess  of  Northumberland  bought  an  ancient  ceremonial  of 
the  Kings  of  England  in  w  hich  occurs  "  The  order  of  the  Kinge  on  Good 
Friday  touching  the  evening  service,  Hallowing  of  the  Crampe  Rings, 
and  offerings,  and  Crosse. 

"  Firste,  the  King  to  come  to  the  Chappell,  or  Closset,  with  the 
Lords  and  noblemen,  waytinge  upon  him,  without  an)'  sword  borne  be- 
fore on  that  day  ;  And  there  to  tarrie  in  his  travers  until  the  Byshope  and 
the  Deane  have  brought  in  the  crucifix  out  of  the  vestrie,  and  layd  it  upon 
the  cushion  before  the  high  altar.  And  then  the  Usher  to  lay  a  carpet 
for  the  Kinge  to  crecpc  to  the  Crosse  upon.  And  that  done,  there  shall 
be  a  forme  sett  upon  the  carpet  before  the  crucifix,  and  a  cushion  laed 
upon  it  for  the  King  to  kneale  upon.  And  the  master  of  the  Jewell 
House  then  to  be  ready  with  the  Crampe  Rings  in  a  bason  of  silver,  and 
the  Kinge  to  kneale  upon  the  Cushion  before  the  form.  And  then  the 
Gierke  of  the  Closett  be  redie  with  the  Books  concerning  the  Hallowing 
of  the  Crampe  Rings  and  the  Ainner  [/'.  e..  Almoner]  was  to  kneale  on 
the  right  hand  of  the  Kinge  holding  the  sayd  book.  When  that  is 
done,  the  Kinge  shall  rise  and  goe  to  the  Altar  where  a  Gent :  Usher 
shall  be  redie  with  a  cushion  for  the  Kinge  to  kneale  upon — And  then 
the  greatest  Lords  that  shall  be  there  to  take  the  bason  with  the  Rings, 
and  beare  them  after  the  Kinge  to  offer.  And  this  done  the  Queene 
shall  come  down  out  of  her  Closset,  or  Traverse,  into  the  Chappell  with 
Ladies  and  Gentlewomen  waytinge  upon  her  and  Creepe  to  the  Crosse, 
and  then  goe  again  to  her  clossett  or  Traverse,  and  the  Ladies  to  creepe 
to  the  Crosse  likewise.     And  the  Lords  and  Noblemen  likewise."  ' 

In  1536,  when  the  convocation  under  Henry  VHL  abolished  some 
practises  as  superstitious,  that  of  creeping  to  the  cross  on  Good  Friday 
was  retained  as  a  laudable  and  edifying  custom.  It  was.  Abolished  by 
however,  forbidden  by  Henry  in  1545.°  Henry  viii. 

'  Grose  and  Astle,  Antiquayian  Repository,  vol.  iv.,  p.  319. 
'  eollier,  Eules.  Hist.    vol.  v.,  p.  137. 


CHAPTER  Vni 

SUPERSTITIONS   CONCERNING   THE   CROSS 

SADLY  we  turn  to  a  darker  page  in  the  history  of  the  Cross — that 
clouded  at  times  by  superstition,  or,  what  is  worse,  by  fraud. 
Only  a  few  instances  of  the  more  notable  are  given,  without  regard  to 
chronology  or  place. 

In  the  Irish  annals  of  the  Four  Masters,  we  read  that,  in  1397,  "  Hugh 

Mathews  by  fasting  and  prayers  in  honor  of  the  miraculous   Cross  of 

Raphoe  and  of  the  image  of  the  blessed  Virgin  of  Trim  re- 

Ireland. 

covered  his  eyesight.  In  the  year  141 1,  from  the  five 
wounds  of  the  image  flowed  a  stream  of  blood,  whereby  various  kinds  of 
infirmities  were  healed."  ' 

But  what  was  in  this  instance  an  occasional  miracle  was  permanent  in 
the  crucifix  in  the  Church  of  S.  Thomas  at  Malabar.  "  At  the  time  of 
Mass,"  says  Ribadeneira,  "  the  holy  Cross  begins  little  by  little,  to 
change  its  natural  color  (which  is  white),  turning  into  yellow,  and  after- 
wards into  black,  and  from  black  into  azure;  until  that  the  sacrifice  of 
Mass  being  ended,  it  returns  to  its  own  natural  color.  And  that  which 
augments  both  admiration  and  devotion  is,  that  as  the  holy  Cross  changes 
its  color,  it  distils  certain  little  drops  of  blood,  and,  little  by  little,  as 
they  grow  thicker  they  fall  in  so  great  abundance,  that  the  cloths  with 
which  tlu'v  \\i])e  it  are  dyed  with  the  same  blood,  and  if  any  year  this 
miracle  fail,  it  is  held  as  a  certain  sign  of  some  great  calamity  that  is  to 
come  upon  them,  as  experience  has  showed  them.""  Perhaps  this 
miracle  may  be  akin  to  that  of  the  liquefaction  of  the  blood  of  S. 
Januarius. 

Some  crucifixes  manifested  their  displeasure  in  a  miraculous  manner. 

'  Mant,  History  of  the  Ch.  in  Ireland,  vol.  i.,  p.  74. 
'  Ribadeneira,  Flos  Sanctorum,  p,  yya. 

404 


Superstitions  Concerning  the  Cross  405 

"  When  Comyn,  Archbisliop  of  Duhliii,  in  the  early  part  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  visited  an  offence  committed  against  him  by  the  Lord  Justice 
with  the  extremest  ecclesiastical  vengeance,  he  caused  the 

Displeasure 

crucifixes  and  images  in  the  Cathedral  to  be  taken  down  and      Manifested  by 

Crucifixes. 

laid   ui)on  thorns,  as  if  the  Passion  of  the  Redeemer  were 
renewed  in  the  person  of  the  minister;  and  his  sufferings  were  supposed 
to  be  repeated  in  one  of  the  figures  which  was  exhibited  to  the  beholders 
with   the   face   inflamed,  the   eyes  shedding  tears,   the   body  bathed  in 
sweat,  and  the  side  pouring  forth  blood  and  water."  ' 

In  Ireland,  childbed  linen  is  drawn  through  the  holes  of  the  crosses 
to  insure  easy  delivery. 

Scotland  was  specially  favored  supernaturally.  David  I.  was  hunting 
in  the  forest  of  Drumsheuch,  now  part  of  the  town  of  Edinburgh,  when 
in  the  ardor  of  the  chase  having  outstripped  his  followers,  HoiyRood 

he  was  attacked  and  thrown  down  by  a  stag.     At  the  very  Abbey, 

instant  when  the  enraged  stag  was  about  to  gore  him  to  death,  a  cross 
was  miraculously  slipped  into  the  monarch"s  hand,  and  the  angry  animal, 
at  the  sight  of  it,  instantly  took  flight. 

Accounts  vary  as  to  details.  One  chronicler  says  that  the  chase  took 
place  on  the  Festival  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  when  the  King,  in- 
stead of  following  the  advice  of  his  confessor,  and  devoting  the  day  to 
his  devotions,  preferred  following  his  pastime  with  his  profligate  young 
nobles. 

In  commemoration  of  his  miraculous  escape,  about  A.D.  1128,  Da\id 
founded  the  Abbey  of  Holy  Rood  in  honor  of  the  Cross.  The  miracu- 
lous Cross  which  had  saved  the  founder's  life  was  placed  in  the  reliquary, 
and  possessed  the  remarkable  quality  that  no  one  could  tell  of  what  it 
consisted,  or  even  whether  it  was  of  animal,  vegetable,  or  mineral 
material." 

David  I.  reminds  us  of  S.  Hubert,  a  nobleman  of  Aquitaine,  "  who 
lived  for  some  years  in  the  Court  of  Pepin  d'Heristal.  .  .  .  One  day 
in  Holy  Week,  when  all  good  Christians  were  at  their  devo-  g  Hubert, 

tions,  as  he  was  hunting  in  the  forest  of  Ardennes,  he  en-  ^-^^  ^^'• 

countered  a  milk-white  stag  bearing  the  crucifix  between  his  horns." 
Of  course  he  was  converted,  and  in  after  years  exhibited  an  example  of 

'  Hoveden,  quoted  in  Mant,  //is/,  pf  the  C/t.  in  /rchind,  vol.  i.,  p.  75. 

'  Billings,  Baronial  and  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  Scotland,  "  Holy  Rood  Abbey." 


4o6 


History  of  the  Cross 


most  edifying  piety.      "  S.  Hubert  appears  to  have  been   one     . 
who  carried  not  only  reh'gious  discipline,  but  social  civilization  into  the 

depths  of  the  forests ;  his  efifigies 


were  anciently  represented, 
sometimes  with  wild  animals, 
sometimes  with  the 
stag  bearing  the  crucifix,  which 
among  the  antique  symbols  ex- 
pressed either  piety 
or  the  conversion  of  some  reck- 
less lover  of  the  chase,  who  like 
the  wild  huntsman  of  the  ballad, 
had  pursued  his  sport  in  defi- 
ance of  the  sacred  ordinances 
and  the  claims  of  humanity." 
Anciently,  the  allegory  was  un- 
derstood by  the  people,  but 
finally,  like  many  an  old  saint 
story,  it  was  assumed  to  be  real. 
In  art  the  saint  carries  a  book 
bearing  the  miraculous  stag,  or 
the  stag  stands  by  his  side.' 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
confound,  in  works  of  art,  S. 
S.Eustace.  Hubert    with    S. 


The  Conversion  cif  S.  Hubert. 
From  Jameson's  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art. 


Eustace,  who  was  a  Roman  soldier  and  captain  of  the  guards  of  the 
Emperor  Trajan.  To  him  also  appeared  a  stag  bearing  a  crucifix  of 
radiant  light,  from  which  the  Saviour  revealed  himself  and  the  hunts- 
man was  converted.  In  art,  S.  Eustace  is  represented  in  the  armor  of 
a  knight,  while  S.  Hubert  is  vested  either  as  a  huntsman  or  as  a  bishoj).' 
Among  the  peasantry  of  Northern  Europe  the  belief  in  the  \'irtue  of 
the  cross  is  still  retained.  In  Norway  the  housewife  carefully  crosses  her 
Sign  of  the  Cross  pies  and  cakcs  bctwccn  Christmas  ;ind  Twelfth  Day,  and  puts 

in  Northern 

Europe.  a  cross  ovcr  her  tloor  that  the  Wild    Huntsman  may   not 

enter.      The  Danes  belie\-e  that  the  Trolls  cannot  pronounce  the  sacred 

'  Mrs.  Jameson,  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art^  vol.  ii.,  pp.  732-737. 
^  IHd.,  pp.  7y2-794. 


J 


Superstitions  Concerning  the  Cross 


407 


Great  Britain. 


word,  but  call  it  "  here  and  there.'"  They  also  believe  that  a  bride 
must  not  enter  her  new  home  e.xcept  under  two  drawn  swords  placed 
saltire-wise. 

To  return  to  Great  Britain.      Within  the  last 
century,  every  bride,  in  "  Holy  Isle  '* 
— doubly    consecrated    by    Scott's 
verse — was  obliged  to  stride  across  the  "  Petting 
stone,"   part  of  the  foundation  of  a  churchyard 
cross,  else  the  marriage  would  prove  unfortunate." 

Stow  also  tells  us,  that  when  Cardinal  Wolsey 
was  at  dinner  on  All  Hallows  day,  his  cross  fell, 
and  wounded  Dr.  Bonner's  head.  "  Hath  it 
drawn  any  blonde  ?  "  inquired  the  Cardinal. 
"  Yea,  forsooth,  my  Lord,"  they  replied.  With 
that  he  cast  his  hood  aside  and  shaking  his  head 
said  grace,  and  muttering,  "  Malum  omen,"  arose 
from  the  table  and  went  to  his  chamber.  Within 
a  few  days  Wolsey  had  fallen. 

Innumerable  instances  of  miraculous  crucifixes 
might  be  told.     We  give,  however, 
but  a  few. 

In  the  Church  of  S.  Domenico  at  Ravenna  is 
preserved  a  crucifix  said  to  have  shed  blood  during 
the  battle  wliich  occurred  on  Easter 
Sunday,   15 12,   between  the   French 
and  the  Spanish,  in  which  battle  Gaston  de  Foix 
was  killed.      In  commemoration,  two  tapers  have  been  burnt  before  it 
ever  since. ^ 

In  the  plague  of  Malaga,  in  1649,  a  certain  statue  of  Christ  at  the 
column,  carved  for  the  Cathedral  by  Giuseppe  Micael,  an  Italian,  per- 
formed prodigies  of  healing,  and  bade  fair  to  rival  that  holy 
crucifix  sculptured  at  Jerusalem  by  Nicodemus,  and  pos- 
sessed by  the  Capuchins  of  Burgos,  which  sweated  on  Fridays,  and 
wrought  miracles  all  the  week.  While  the  pestilence  was  yet  raging, 
the  sculptor  stood,  one  evening,  musing  near  the  door  of  the  sanctuary 

'  Thorpe,  A'artlicrn  Mythology,  vol.  ii.,  p.  175. 

'  Brand,  Popular  Antiquities,  vol.  ii.,  p.  105.  ^  Webb,  Continental  Ecclcsiology,  p.  442. 


Miraculous 
Crucifixes. 


Crucifix  at 
Ravenna. 


S.  Eustace. 

From  Jameson's  Sacred  and 

Legendary  Art. 


The  Lord  of 
Health. 


4o8  History  of  the  Cross 

where  his  work  was  enshrined,  but  \\-ith  so  sorrowful  a  countenance  that 
a  friend  haihng  him  from  afar,  according  to  the  usages  of  plague-stricken 
society,  inquired  the  cause  of  his  sadness.  "  Think  you,"  said  the 
artist,  "  that  I  have  anything  more  to  look  for  on  earth  after  seeing  and 
hearing  the  prodigies  and  marvels  of  this  sovereign  image  which  my  un- 
worthy hands  have  made  ?  It  is  an  old  tradition  amongst  the  masters 
of  our  craft,  that  he  shall  soon  die  to  whom  it  is  given  to  make  a  miracu- 
lous image."  And  the  good  Giuseppe  erred  not  in  his  presentiment; 
his  chisel's  work  was  done;  he  was  to  return  no  more,  nor  see  his  native 
country;  and  within  eight  days  the  dead-cart  had  carried  liim  to  the 
gorged  cemetery  of  Malaga.  His  name,  if  not  his  life,  was  preserved  by 
the  statue,  which  was  long  revered  for  its  Esculapian  powers,  under  the 
title  (profanely  usurped)  of  the  "  Lord  of  Health."  ' 

In  the  Church  of  the  Madonna  del  Carmine,  in  Naples,  is  a  crucifix 
which  in  former  times  is  said  to  have  exhibited  miraculous  vitality,  the 
hair  of  the  head  growing  after  being  cut  every  year.  It  is  held  in  great 
veneration,  and  is  exhibited  on  the  first  and  last  days  of  the  year.  Per- 
haps, latterly,  the  faith  of  the  Neapolitans  is  so  strong  as  not  to  need  a 
repetition  of  the  miracle,  for  the  fcsta  is  now  only  commemorated  by  a 
mass  celebrated  with  extraordinary  pomp,  during  which  the  image  is 
lowered  to  be  kissed  on  the  feet  by  the  priests  and  congregation.  From 
the  right  side  of  the  head  a  long  lock  of  hair  hangs  down,  which  is  now 
permitted  to  grow  unshorn."  This  may  be  the  same  figure  which  is  said 
to  have  bowed  its  head  to  avoid  a  cannon-ball  which  passed  through  the 
church  in  the  siege  of  1435-" 

Naples  is  especially  favored,  for  in  another  church,  that  of  S. 
Domenico  Maggiore,  is  preserved  the  picture  of  the  crucifix  which  is 
„      , .  said  to  have  congratulated   .S.    Thomas  Aquinas  with  the 

Speaking  ^  i 

Crucifixes.  words,  "  Boic  scripststi  dc  iiic,   Tlioiiia,  qnaiii  ergo  incrccdcm 

recipies?  "     To  which  the  saint  replied,  "  Au>ii  aliain  nisi  tc."  ' 

'  Stirling,  Annals  of  the  Artists  in  Spain,  vol.  i.,  p.  28. 

'  Correspondent  of  London  Times,  December  27,  1857. 

'  Murray,  Handbook  of  Southern  Italy-,  p.  121. 

■*  In  Pisa  there  is  another  paintiny  of  the  same  subject  by  Francesco  Vanni.  It  should  be 
noted,  as  Mrs.  Jameson  reminds  us  (Monastic  Orders,  p.  379),  that  this  is  related  by  the  bio- 
graphers of  S.  Thomas,  not  by  himself.  Ribadeneira,  not  content  with  this  story,  multiplies  it, 
and  tells  us  of  three  revelations  to  this  saint ;  once  when  writing  on  the  Kucharist,  a  second 
time  when  composing  an  Office  for  the  Festival  of  Corpus  Christi,  and  a  third  as  above  when 
finishing  his  Snvima   'I'heolo^ia. 


Superstitions  Concerning  the  Cross  409 

When  S.  Francis  of  Assisi  was  praying  in  the  Church  of  S.  Damian, 
a  voice  issued  from  tlie  crucifix,  "  Go,  I^'rancis,  and  repair  my  house." 
Supposing  the  commantl  to  refer  to  tlie  ruinous  condition        „  „  ■■ 

r  I  o  a.  r  rancis  oi 

of  the  church,  lie  took  some  of  his  father's  chjth  and  liaving  ass.si. 

sold  it,  brought  the  money  to  the  priest,  who  refused  to  receive  it,  for 
fear  of  the  saint's  father.  S.  Francis  threw  it  in  a  corner  and  retired. 
At  length,  being  instructed  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  revelation,  he  re- 
nounced his  father  and  wealth,  and  assumed  Orders.'  This  crucifix  is  at 
present  preserved  in  the  Church  of  S.  Cliiara  at  Assisi. 

In  the  Church  of  S.  Paolo  Fuori  delle  Mura  at  Rome,  which  Webb 
terms  a  "  treasure-house  of  Christian  antiquities,"  "  is  preserved  the  cruci- 
fix which  spoke  to  S.  Bridget.     This  saint  must  not  be  con-        =  „  ,,    . 

r  b  S.  Bridget  at 

founded  with  the  patroness  of  Ireland,  but  was  a  widow  of  Rome, 

high  rank  in  Roman  iKigiology  because  of  her  "  Revelations"  of  the 
Passion  of  our  Lord. 

S.  Dunstan  also  was  admonished  by  a  crucifix  to  expel  the  married 
priests    from    his    diocese,'  which    command   the  gentle  (?) 

S.  Dunstan. 

samt  was  not  slow  to  obey. 

Mrs.  Jameson  has  resuscitated  for  the  benefit  of  modern  times  the 
most  Christian  legend  of  S.  John  Gualberto,  who  spared  the  murderer  of 
his  brother,  because,  when  he  met  him  unarmed  upon  Good       =  ,  v,    r-    , 

'  '  AS.  John  Gual- 

Friday,  the  assassin  threw  himself  upon  his  knees,  and  e.x-''^'''""'^'^'"'^'"'^'- 
tending  his  arms  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  implored  mercy  in  the  name  of 
Him  who  suffered  that  day.  S.  John  hastened  to  the  Church  of  San 
Miniato,  and  prostrating  himself  before  the  crucifix  begged  that  the 
measure  he  had  meted  to  another  should  be  measured  to  himself.  The 
image  bowed  its  head.  This  completed  the  conversion,  and  the  some- 
time soldier  became  the  founder  of  the  Order  of  Vallombrosa. 

This  crucifix  is  one  of  the  oldest  extant,  circa  1020,  and  is  painted  on 
cloth  stretched  on  a  wooden  cross.  It  is  now  over  the  altar  of  S.  Trinita, 
Florence,  and  is  exposed  on  the  evening  of  Good  Friday.* 

It  is  related  of  S.  Margaret  of  Cortona  that  "  as  she  knelt  one  day 
before  the  image  of  the  crucified  Redeemer,  He  bent  His  s.  Margaret, 
head   in  compassion  and  forgiveness.      She  was  regarded  from  that  day 

'  Lindsay,  C/iristian  .4r/,  vol.  ii.,  p.  204. 

■  Webb,  Coiitiiii'iitiil  Ecclis.,  p.  5 38. 

^  Camden,  Britannia,  p.  142. 

*  Hemans,  Hist,  of  Medicvval  Christianity  and  Sacred  Art,  p.  13S. 


4TO  History  of  the  Cross 

with  religious  reverence  by  the  people  of  Cortona,  and  became  the  local 
Magdalene."  ' 

In  1602,  when  the  city  of  Cortona  was  visited  by  the  plague,  the 
image  of  S.  Nicolas  of  Tolentino  was  borne  in  solemn  procession  to  the 
S.Nicolas  of  Lazaretto.  The  procession  was  met  by  another  carrying  a 
zoientino.  large  cruciiix.     "  Thereupon  the  saint  stretched  forth  his 

arms,  and  the  figure  of  Christ  stooping  from  the  Cross  embraced  S. 
Nicolas,  and  from  that  moment  the  pestilence  was  stayed."  "^ 

While  not  meaning  to  be  uncharitable,  and  making  all  due  allowance 
for  overwrought  imagination,  \\'e  think  that  some  light  may  be  thrown 
on  these,  and  similar  miracles,  by  the  story  of  the  "  gaping  rood  "  or 
"  bearded  crucifix  "  of  Boxley  in  Kent,  England.  This  was  commonly 
called  the  "  Rood  of  Grace,"'  to  which  many  pilgrimages  had  been 
made,  because  it  was  observed  sometimes  to  bow,  and  to  lift  itself  up, 
to  shake  and  stir  its  head,  hands,  and  feet,  to  roll  the  eyes,  move  the 
lips,  and  bend  the  brows,  all  of  which  were  looked  on  by  the  abused 
multitude  as  the  effects  of  a  di\ine  power.  These  were  now  publicly 
discovered  to  have  been  cheats;  for  the  springs  were  showed  by  which 
all  these  motions  were  made.  Upon  which  John  Hilse\-,  then  Bishop 
of  Rochester,  made  a  sermon,  and  broke  the  rood  in  pieces,*  at  S. 
Paul's  Cross,  London. 

When  the  Litany  was  sung  in  English  in  Christ  Church,  Dublin,  at 
the  arrival  of  the  Earl  of  Sussex,  the  Lord  Lieutenant  under  Queen 
„,    ^.  Elizabeth,  the  Archbishoi)  and  the  rest  of  the  Priv\-  Council 

Bleeding  *■ 

Crucifix.  being  present,  drops  of  blood  trickled  from  the  thorns  of  the 

crown  upon  the  face  of  the  marble  image  upon  the  Cross,  and  the  people 
were  told  by  one  privy  to  the  contrivance,  "  that  our  Saviour  could  not 
choose  but  sweat  blood  when  heresy  was  come  into  the  Church." 

By  command  of  the  Archbishop,  the  image  was  examined,  and  a 
sponge  soaked  in  blood  was  discovered  within  the  hollow  of  the  head, 
which  had  been  placed  there  by  one  Lee,  formeiiy  a  niDiik  of  the  Cathe- 
dral.     He  and  his  assistants  were  exposed   for   three   Sundays  upon  a 

'  Mrs.  Jameson,  Monastic  Orders,  p.  329. 

"  Ibid,,  p.  199. 

'  "  Rood  of  Grace,"  a  term  iisiuilly  applied  to  a  cro.ss  of  which  it  has  been  certified,  under 
seal  and  sign-manual  of  a  liishop  or  I'ope,  that  it  has  exhibited  the  prerogative  of  miraculous  or 
intercessory  powers.     I'ooley,  Chtircliyard  Crosses  of  Gloticestcrshirc,  ji.  26. 

■'  Burnet,  History  of  the  Reformation,  part  i.,  bk.  iii.,  p.  178. 


Superstitions  Concerning  the  Cross 


411 


table  before  the  pulpit,  with  their  crime  placarded  upon  their  breasts. 
Parker,  then  elect-l'rimate  of  Canterbury,  made  use  of  this  detected 
fraud  to  induce  Queen  Elizabeth  to  consent  to  the  removal  of  images 
from  the  churches,  but  "  all  his  IcarnitiL;'  and  zeal  coukl  not  persuade  the 
Queen  to  part  with  the  crucifix  and  tapers  from  her  own  closet;  she 
thought,  't  is  likely,  that  the  arguing  against  the  use,  from  the  abuse, 
was  short  of  exact  reasoning."  ' 

The  Rood  of  Beccles,  which  sweat,  bled,  and  emitted  a 

r  111  •,••■,  .J    Rood  of  Beccles. 

sweet  perlume,  was  doubtless  contrived  m  a  similar  manner. 

In  connection  with  this  head  of  the  subject,  may  be  noted  some  of 
the  instances  of  the  stigmata,  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
is  afforded  in  the  history  of  S.  Francis  of  Assisi. 

This   saint   was  li\'ing  on   Monte   Alverno   in  the   Apennines,   when 
upon  the  Festi\al  of  the  Exaltation 
of  the   Cross,   a  seraph        s.  Francis  of 
appeared  bearing  a  cru-  Assisi. 

cifix.  Two  wings  of  the  angel  were 
above  the  head  of  the  figure,  two 
covered  the  body,  and  two  were 
stretched  forth  to  fly.  "  Pity  passed 
through  the  [saint's]  heart  like  a 
sword,  and  a  supernatural  sympathy 
visibly  and  indclibl}-  imprinted  the 
wounds  of  the  crucified  upon  his  per- 
son." ^  In  the  holes  remained,  as  it 
were,  nails  of  hard  flesh,  the  heads 
whereof  were  round  and  black.  The 
points  were  long  and  went  beyond 
the  skin,  and  were  turned  back  as 
if  they  had  been  clenched  with  a 
hammer.  The  wound  of  his  right 
side  was  a  red  scar,  out  of  which  flowed  so  much  blood  that  it  colored 
the  habit  of  the  saint.'  "  That  the  wounds  actually  existed  during  S. 
Francis's  life  there  can  be  no  question,"  writes  Lord  Lindsay,  "although" 

'  Cecil's  Memoirs  ;  Collier,  Eccles.  Hist.,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  434,  435. 
'^  Walcott,  Sacn-d  Arcluvoiogy,  p.  447. 
^  Lindsay,  Christian  Art,  vol.  ii.,  p.  217. 
'  Ribadeneira,  Flos  Sanctorum,  p.  767. 


Stigmata  of  .S.  Francis  of  Assisi. 
From  Holland's  Crticiana. 


412  History  of  the  Cross 

(Roman)  "  Catliolics  and  Protestants,  and  such  as  view  the  Christianity 
of  the  Middle  Ages  witli  Oriental  eyes,  will  account  for  their  infliction 
very  differently."  ' 

According  to  the  legend,  after  the  death  of  S.  Francis,  when  the 
populace  of  Assisi  were  permitted  to  view  his  body,  one  Jerome,  being 
skeptical,  touched  and  moved  the  nails,  whereupon  the  hands,  feet,  and 
side  shrank  as  with  pain.  This  subject  forms  one  of  the  series  of  fres- 
coes illustrating  the  life  of  the  saint  by  Giotto  at  Assisi.^ 

It  is  a  little  curious  that  in  1222.  a  few  years  before  the  miracle  ex- 
hibited by  S.  Francis,  "  t\\'o  naughty  fellows,"  as  Holinshed  calls  them, 
were  crucified  by  order  of  a  council  held  in  Oxford,  because 

Men  Crucified 

for  Assuming       they  Were  found  to  be  false  dissemblers,  showing  the  signs 

the  stigmata.  C        •  a 

of  the  wounds  of  our  baviour. 

Concerning  stigmata,  Ennemoser  says  that  medical  history  affords 
many  instances  of  the  power  of  thought  to  produce  wounds  on  the  sur- 
Medicai  Theory  ^^'"'^  '^'^  '^^  body  in  parts  to  wliicli  it  is  intently  directed, 
of  the  stigmata,  fj^g  explanation  he  finds  in  the  plastic  force  of  phantasy,  the 
essence  of  which,  as  poetic  shaping  power,  consists  in  the  realizing  of 
ideal  representations,  wherein  the  soul  of  man  can  do  much  even  to  his 
own  body.  In  confirmation  of  this,  De  Boismont  gives  the  following 
account,  which  cannot  be  doubted  : 

Marie  de  Moerl  was  born  in  1812.  In  her  infancy  she  was  subject  to 
Marie  de  Moerl.  scvcre  ncrvous  attacks,  and  when  about  twenty  years  old 
she  became  affected  with  ecstasy  on  the  reception  of  the  Eucharist, 
on   one   occasion   remaining   on    her   knees   for   thirty   hours   after    par- 

'  Lindsay,  Cliri:tian  Art,  vol  ii.,  p.  2i8.  This  author  refers  to  a  work  then  (1847)  in 
preparation  by  Alfred  Maury,  autlior  oi  Essai  sur  lis  Lcgendcs  Picitses  dii  Moycn-age,  on  stig- 
matation.  The  Quarterlv  Revie7v  also  adds  its  \veight :  S.  Francis  "was  no  deceiver.  He 
never  spoke  of  his  wounds  during  his  life,  and  his  followers  remembered,  after  his  death,  that  by 
the  length  of  his  robes,  he  had  seemed  studiously  to  conceal  his  hands  and  his  feet.  It  is  likely 
that  the  five  wounds  were  really  discerned  on  his  person,  when  he  was  no  more.  Towards  the 
close  of  his  life,  in  an  e-xcess  of  ascetic  fervor,  it  is  very  possible  that  he  might  have  made  the 
attempt,  which  so  many  enthusiasts  have  made,  to  realize  to  himself  the  pains  of  the  Passion, 
and  that  in  his  debilitated  state  his  wounds  never  closed."     April,  1S5S,  p.  366. 

'•'  S.  Francis  receiving  the  stigmata  was  a  favorite  subject  with  medireval  artists,  but  few 
think,  when  they  gaze  upon  the  picture  by  Cigoli  in  the  Academy  of  Florence,  of  the  incident 
which  enabled  the  painter  to  portray  the  marvellous  pallor  and  wanness  which  are  there  expressed. 
A  poor  i)ilgrim,  worn  out  with  hunger  and  fatigue,  presented  himself  one  day  at  the  studio  and 
begged  an  alms.  Cigoli  wished  to  sketch  his  figure,  before  he  extended  his  charity.  Forgetful 
of  his  model's  need,  the  poor  wretch  fainted.  .At  once  the  painter  seized  the  happy  moment, 
and  the  wasted  features  were  transferred  to  the  canvas. 

•'  Southey,  Omiiiaita,  vol.  i,,  p.  274. 


Superstitions  Concerning  the  Cross  4' 3 

taking  of  the  Comnuinii)ii.  In  the  autumn  of  1S33,  the  pahns  of  her 
hands  sank  in  as  if  under  pressure,  became  painful,  and  frequently 
cramped.  Un  the  Feast  of  the  Purification  in  1834  she  was  observed  to 
wipe  her  hands  and  exhibit  a  childlike  alarm  at  the  appearance  of  blood. 
Soon  marks  appeared  on  her  feet,  and  on  her  heart.  On  Thursday  and 
Friday  the  wounds  shed  blood;  on  other  evenini;s  they  were  covered 
with  a  crust  of  dried  blood.  After  some  time  she  was  visited  by  Dr. 
Goerres.  She  had  then  been  four  years  almost  continually  in  a  state  of 
ecstasy,  and  when  aroused  from  it,  as  she  was  daily,  appeared  rational 
and  collected,  and  gave  directions  about  the  household  affairs.  On 
arousing  from  trance  her  first  movement  always  was  to  hide  her  marked 
hands  beneath  the  bedclothes,  as  a  child  would  conceal  them  when 
soiled  from  its  mother.  Her  meditations  usually  were  of  the  Passion  of 
our  Lord,  and  on  I'riday  her  sympathies  were  so  intense  that  she  appeared 
to  agonize  with  Him  to  the  last  extremity.  "  If  Marie  de  Moerl  actually 
died,"  says  Dr.  Goerres.   "  her  death  could  not  appear  more  real."  ' 

Another  instance  noted  by  Ennemoser  is  that  of  the  nun  Enrich; 
from  youth  sickly  and  devout,  before  she  entered  the  cloister  she  had 
a  vision  in  which  she  was  offered  a  crown  of  thorns,  or  a 

Enrich. 

wreath  of  flowers.      She  chose  the  crown,  pressed  it  upon  her 

brow,  and  felt  upon  her  head  a  violent  pain  accompanied  with  bleeding. 

A  later  case  is  that  of   Louisa  Lateau,  of  Belgium.     The  stigmata 

were  manifested  every  Friday.     When  the  sufferer  was  not  in  a  state  of 

ecstasy,    she   was   afflicted   with   catalepsy.      Her  arms   re- 
Louisa  Lateau. 
mained  rigidly  extended  as  upon  a  cross  and  she  would   fall 

even  upon  the  stones  without  injury.      From   this  peculiar  condition  she 

could  only  be  awakened  by  one  of  the  Order  of  the  Passion. 

Thirty-two  other  instances  of  similar  stigmata,  or  in  which  wounds 
have  appeared  upon  the  body,  are  cited  by  the  authors  referred  to,  one 
of  which  is  remarkable  enough  to  be  repeated. 

Upon  the  entry  of  the  French  into  Moscow  the  terror  of  a  citizen 
who  witnessed  a  conflict  between  a  Frenchman  and  a  Cossack  was  so 
great  that,  although  actually  untouched,  bleeding  gashes  appeared  upon 
his  person. '' 

'  De  Boismont,  Hist,  of  Hallucinations,  p.  225. 

°  Mountford  says  there  have  been  sixty  instances  of  stigmata  since  the  days  of  S.  Francis, 
perhaps  ten  within  the  past  year  (1S67).     Miracles.  Past  and  Present,  p.  15S. 


414  History  of  the  Cross 

Ennemoser  insists  that  tlie  s/igiiiata  are  not  scientifically  produced 
deceptions,  nor  yet  are  they  to  be  explained  by  the  mere  physical  cir- 
cumstances of  the  body.  We  will  hardly  ascribe  them  to  spirits  or  to 
any  immediate  divine  apparition.  Far  from  being  miraculous,  they  are 
due  in  every  case  to  a  purely  psychical  cause.' 

Cruciform  birth-marks  occasionally  occur.  S.  Roch  is  said  to  have 
had  the  figure  of  a  small  red  cross  upon  his  breast.^  Frederick,  the 
„     .,  eldest  son  of  John  the  Constant,  of  the  House  of  Sa.xony, 

Birth-marks.        y^^^  3  similar  onc  upon  his  back.' 

'  Ennemoser,  Hist,  of  Mngic,  pp.  497-409. 

-Jameson.  Sacred  and  Leg.  Art.^  vol.  ii.,  p.  33. 

'  Shobel,  Prince  Albert  and  tlie  House  of  Saxony,  p.  94.  It  is  not  necessary  to  multiply 
instances  of  stigmata  known  in  art.  Two  prinsipal  ones  doubtless  will  occur  to  the  reader,  e.g., 
S.  Catharine  of  Siena  (Mrs.  Jameson,  Monastic  Orders,  p.  3S1),  and  S.  Clare  of  Montefalco. 
The  latter  is  said  to  have  had  the  crucifix  and  instruments  of  Christ's  Passion  imprinted  upon 
her  heart.  Such  was  the  testimony  of  her  sister  nuns,  before  whom,  after  her  death,  she  was 
dissected.     Holland,  Criiciana,  p.  66. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE   SIGN   OF   THE   CROSS 

Section  i. — Personal  Use  of  the  Sign.  Section  2. — In  Baptism.  Section 
J. — In  Confirmation.  Section  4.. — In  the  Holy  Eucharist.  Section 
5. — In  Benediction.  Section  6.~  In  Ordination.  Section  7. — In 
Prayer.  Section  8. — In  Signatures.  Section  g. — In  Toucliing  for 
the  King's  Evil.     Section  10. — Power  of  tlic  Sign  over  Devils. 

WE  have  seen  tlKit  the  cross  was  used  among  the  heathen,  who,  in 
traditional  prophecy  derived  from  their  forefathers,  declared 
that  it  signified  "  eternal  life."  No  wonder  then  that  when  use  of  the  sign 
men"s  eyes  were  opened,  and  their  hearts  cheered  by  the     °f«i>e  cross  by 

J  ^  ^  J  the  Early 

tidings    of    an    accomplished    redemption,    they    expressed  Christians, 

their  feelings  by  employing  the  same  sign,  now  doubly  dear,  because  it 
was  no  longer  a  dumb  emblem,  but  one  which  they  hailed  as  their  anchor, 
their  armor,  and  the  symbol  and  assurance  of  eternal  life,  once  promised  and 
dimly  discerned  through  ages  of  spiritual  darkness,  now  blazing  with  the 
effulgence  of  the  Sun  of  Righteousness  bearing  the  cheering  words  to  the 
humblest  as  well  as  the  highest  among  God's  saints,  "  By  this  conquer. " 

The  use  of  the  Cross  was  with  the  early  Christians  no  superstitious 
custom.  Their  "  heart  was  in  the  Cross,  and  the  Cross  was  in  their 
heart."  '      It   was    not    unaccompanied   by   practical   faith    and    fervent 

'  "  Cor  ill  Cruce,  Crux  in  Corcc."  This  idea  is  beautifully  embodied  in  some  lines  on  a 
marble  slab  inserted  in  the  wall  of  a  church  at  Sorrento.  They  begin  and  end  alternately  with 
the  words  Croce  and  Ciiorc.     The  following  is  as  nearly  as  possible  a  literal  translation  : 

"  Cross,  most  adored  !  to  thee  I  give  my  heart ; 
Heart  1  have  not,  except  to  love  the  cross. 
Cross,  thou  hast  won  my  wayward,  alien  heart ; 
Heart,  thou  hast  owned  the  triumph  of  the  cross. 
Cross,  tree  of  life  !  to  thee  I  nail  my  heart ; 
Heart  cannot  live  that  lives  without  the  cross. 
Cross,  be  thy  blood  the  cleansing  of  my  heart  ; 

415 


4i6  History  of  the  Cross 

prayer.  Their  dependence  was  placed  not  upon  the  mere  sign,  but  on 
the  power  of  the  Lord  of  the  Cross.  Thus  testifies  S.  Chrysostom, 
^    ,.  ,       exhorting:  his  hearers:  "  Let  no  man  therefore  be  ashamed 

Testimony  of  o 

s.  Chrysostom.  gf  [[ig  honored  symbol  of  our  sah-ation,  and  of  the  chicfest 
of  all  good  things,  whereby  we  even  live,  and  whereby  we  are,  but  as  a 
crown  so  let  us  bear  about  the  Cross  of  Christ.  Yea,  for  by  it  all  things 
are  wrought,  that  are  wrought  among  us.  Whether  one  is  to  be  new- 
born, the  Cross  is  there,  or  to  be  nourished  with  the  Mystical  Food,  or 
to  be  ordained,  or  to  do  anything  else,  everywhere  our  symbol  of  victory 
is  present.  Therefore  both  on  our  hoLises,  and  walls,  and  windows,  and 
upon  our  foreheads,  and  upon  our  mind,  we  inscribe  it  with  much  care. 

"  For  the  sah-ation  wrought  for  us,  and  of  our  common  freedom,  and 
of  the  goodness  of  our  Lord,  this  is  the  sign.  .  .  .  When,  therefore, 
thou  signest  thyself,  think  of  the  purpose  of  the  Cross,  and  quench 
anger,  and  all  other  passions.  When  thou  signest  thyself,  fill  thy  fore- 
head with  all  courage,  make  thy  soul  free.  And  ye  know  assuredly  what 
are  the  things  that  give  freedom.  Wherefore  also  Paul  leading  us  there, 
I  mean  unto  the  freedom  that  beseems  us.  did  on  this  wise  lead  us  unto 
it,  having  reminded  us  of  the  Cross  and  Blood  of  our  Lord.  For  yc  are 
bought,  saith  he,  with  a  price,  be  not  yc  the  servants  of  uicn.  Consider, 
saith  he,  the  Price  that  hath  been  paid  for  thee,  and  then  wilt  thou  be  a 
slave  to  no  man;  by  the  Price  meaning  the  Cross. 

"  Since  not  iiicrcly  by  the  fingers  ought  one  to  oigrare  it,  but  before  this 
bv  the  purpose  of  t lie  heart  ivith  much  faith.  And  if  in  this  way  thou  hast 
marked  it  on  tliy  face,  none  of  the  unclean  spirits  will  be  able  to  stand 
near  thee,  seeing  the  blade  whereby  he  received  his  wound,  seeing  the 
sword  which  gave  him  his  mortal  stroke.  For  if  we,  on  seeing  the  places 
in  which  the  criminals  are  beheaded,  shudder,  think  what  the  devil  must 
endure,  seeing  the  weapon  whereby  Christ  put  an  end  to  all  his  power, 
and  cut  off  the  head  of  the  Dragon. 

Be  not  ashamed  of  so  great  a  blessing,  lest  Christ  be  ashamed  of 
thee,  when  He  comes  with  His  glory,  and  the  Sign  appears  before  Him, 

Heart,  be  tliy  blood  an  offering  to  the  cross. 
Cross,  thou  shall  have  the  hom.age  of  my  heart ; 
Heart,  thou  shall  be  the  temple  of  the  cross. 
Cross,  blest  is  he  who  yields  to  thee  his  heart ; 
Heart,  rest  secure,  who  cleavest  to  the  cross. 
Cross,  key  of  Heaven,  ojien  every  heart ; 
Heart,  every  heart,  receive  the  holy  cross." 


The  Sign  of  the  Cross  417 

shining  beyond  the  very  sunbeam.  For  indeed  the  Cross  cometh  tiien, 
uttering  a  voice  by  its  appearance,  and  pleading  with  the  whole  world  for 
our  Lord,  and  signifying  that  no  part  hath  failed  of  what  pertained  to 
him. 

"  This  Sign,  both  in  the  days  of  our  forefathers  and  now,  hath  opened 
doors  that  were  shut  up;  this  hath  quenched  poisonous  drugs;  this  hath 
taken  away  the  power  of  hemlock;  this  hath  healed  bites  of  venomous 
beasts.  For  if  it  o[)ened  the  gates  of  hell,  and  threw  wide  the  archways 
of  Heaven,  and  made  a  new  entrance  into  Paradise,  and  cut  away  the 
nerves  of  the  devil,  what  marvel,  if  it  prevailed  over  poisonous  drugs, 
and  venomous  beasts,  and  all  other  such  things. 

This  therefore  do  thou  engrave  itpoii  thy  i/tiiid,  and  embrace  the 
salvation  of  oiu'  souls.  For  this  Cro.ss  sa\'ed  the  con\'erted  world,  drove 
away  error,  brought  back  truth,  made  earth  Heaven,  fashioned  men  into 
angels.  Because  of  this,  the  devils  are  no  longer  terrible,  but  con- 
temptible; neither  is  death,  death,  but  sleep;  because  of  this,  all  that 
warreth  against  us  is  cast  to  the  ground,  and  trodden  under  foot."  ' 

The  sign  of  the  Cross  was  among  Christians  the  password  among 
friends,  the  confession  of  faith  before  enemies,  the  tangible  expression 
of  fervent  prayei"  at  all  times  and  in  any  circumstances.  To  this  Tertul- 
lian  testifies : 

In  all  our  travels  and  movements,  in  all  our  coming  in  and  going 
out,  in  putting  on  our  shoes,  at  the  bath,  at  the  table,  in  lighting  our 
candles,  in  lying  down,  in  sitting  down,  whatever  employment  occupieth 
us,  we  mark  our  forehead  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross. 

For  these  and  such-like  rules,  if  thou  requirest  a  law  in  the  Scrip- 
tures thou  shalt  find  none.  Tradition  will  be  pleaded  to  thee  as  origi- 
nating them,  custom  as  confirming  them,  and  faith  as  observing  them. 
That  reason  will  support  tradition,  and  custom,  and  faith,  thou  wilt 
either  thyself  perceive,  or  learn  from  some  one  who  hath  perceived  it. 
Meanwhile  thou  wilt  believe  that  some  reason  there  is,  to  which  due 
submission  is  due."  ' 

We  can  scarcely  open  a  volume  of  the  Fathers  without  lighting  upon 
some  passage  expressive  of  the  love  and  veneration  in  which  the  symbol 
of  hope  to  the  lost  world  was  held.      S.  Ephrem's  exhortation  is  so  full 

'  S.  Chrysostom  on  S.  Matt.     Horn.,  liv.,  pp.  735-737,  Oxf.  Trans. 
'  TertuUian,  Of  the  Crown,  p.  165,  Oxf.  Trans. 


4i8  History  of  the  Cross 

of  holy  faith  that  we  cannot  pass  it  by.  In  his  sermon  on  the  holy 
Cross  he  urges  this  precept:  "  Let  us  point  and  imprint  upon  our  doors, 
on  our  foreheads,  and  upon  all  our  members  this  life-giving  Cross.  Let 
us  arm  ourselves  with  this  invincible  armor  of  Christians,  '  the  vanquisher 
of  death,  the  hope  of  the  faithful,  the  downfall  of  heresies,  the  bulwark 
of  true  faith.'  Thus  defended,  no  evil  will  hurt  us.  By  this  sign  have 
all  nations  been  united  in  one  Church,  in  one  Faith,  in  one  Baptism,  and 
knit  together  in  charity."  ' 

The  ancient  writers  reverently  collected  much  curious  matter  concern- 
ing the  sign  of  the  Cross.  It  would  occupy  too  much  space  to  give  the 
tithe  of  it  in  full,  therefore  we  condense,  explaining  the  symbolism. 
=     u  1-       ft    They  tell  us  when  we  use  five  fingers  we  are  reminded  of 

Symbolism  ot  the  J  o 

Sign  of  the  Cross,  ^j-jg  fjyg  wounds  of  Christ,  when  three  are  employed,  we 
represent  the  holy  Trinity,  with  two  we  denote  the  twofold  natures  of 
Christ,  in  opposition  to  the  Monophysites." 

By  the  passing  from  the  left  to  the  right,  remission  of  sins,  and  life  to 
come,  are  indicated;  from  the  goats  to  the  sheep;  from  misery  we  pass 
to  glory  as  Christ  passed  from  death  to  life;  from  Hades  to  Paradise;  we 
are  reminded  that  Christ's  mission  passed  from  the  Jews  to  the  Gentiles. 

When  the  finger  alone  was  used  we  are  told  it  ought  to  be  bent  to 
the  thumb.  Some  in  reverence  bring  the  finger  to  the  mouth  and  kiss 
it — the  forehead  first  is  touched,  "  in  the  name  of  the  Father,"  He  is  the 
head  and  beginning  of  all  things;  descending  to  below  the  breast,  we 
call  to  mind  the  eternal  generation  of  the  Son,  and  his  abiding  in  the 
womb  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  while  passing  from  the  left  to  the  right  we  pro- 
nounce "  and  the  holy  Ghost,"  love  in  the  heart  at  the  left,  possession 
with  honor  and  power  at  the  right,  or,  as  S.  Ambrose  says,  we  touch 
the  forehead  for  profession,  the  heart  for  love,  the  arm  for  work.  Another 
form  is  perpendicularly  used;  three  crosses,  beginning  the  cross  upon  the 
brow  because  it  is  the  head  of  all,  on  the  mouth  whence  issues  the  word, 
on  the  heart  for  love. 

In  modern  days,  in  both  the  Greek  and  Latin  branches  of  the  Church, 
when  an  individual  makes  the  sign  of  the  Cross  upon  his  own  person,  he 
uses  the   right   hand,    ha\ing  the   first    and    second    fingers  open,   while 

'  S.  Ephrem,  quoted  in  Haslam's  'jlic  Cruss  and  the  Serpent^  p.  211. 

•  Before  their  time  the  ancients  used  but  one  finger,  ex.  ^r.,  Sozomen  says  witli  hi.-;  linger 
he  signeth  the  Cross.  S.  Gregory,  "  ISy  virtue  of  the  Cross  whicli  tlie  man  of  Cod  signed  with 
his  finger." 


The  Sign  of  the  Cross  419 

the  third  and  fourth  are  closed.  Durandus  says,  that  the  sic^n  of  the 
Cross  is  made  ^\ith  the  throe  fint^ers  to  invoke  the  Trinity.  The 
Greeks  have  the   same  opinion,    but  add  that    each   finger 

Modern  Mode  of 

symboHzes  one  of  the  Divine  Persons.      The  Archbishop  <if  signing  the 

1  1   1   -  Cross. 

Mistra,  wlioni  Didrnn  interrogated  on  tliat  subject,  told  hun, 
"that  the  thumb,  from  its  strength,  indicated  the  Creator,  the  Father 
Eternal,  the  Almighty,  that  the  middle  finger  was  consecrated  to  Jesus 
Christ,  who  lias  redeemed  us,  and  is  therefore,  in  respect  of  men,  the 
chief  person  of  the  Trinity;  that  the  forefinger,  standing  between  the 
middle  finger  and  thumb,  figured  the  Holy  Ghost,  who  unites  the  P"ather 
and  Son,  and  in  representations  of  the  Trinity  is  placed  between  those 
two  persons. 

"  With  the  three  fingers  open,  the  body  is  marked  with  the  form  of 
the  Cross,  beginning  at  the  brow,  and  descending  thence  to  the  breast, 
crossing  that  vertical  line  by  another  or  horizontal  one,  drawn  from  the 
left  shoulder  to  the  right.  The  Greeks  go  from  the  right  to  the  left,  and 
it  appears  that  with  us  also  in  the  thirteenth  century,  at  the  time  when 
Durandus  wrote,  the  line  was  traced  indifferently  from  either  shoulder. 
The  following  extract  from  Durandus  comprehends  everything  that  re- 
mains to  be  said  concerning  the  sign  of  the  Cross: 

The  sign  of  the  Cross  should  be  made  w^ith  three  fingers,  because 
while  tracing  it  we  invoke  the  Trinity.  Hence  the  prophet  exclaims, 
Qiiis  appcndit  tribus  digitis  molcin  tcrrci:  (Isaiah  xl.,  12,  Editio  Vulgataf). 
Still  the  thumb  has  the  pre-eminence,  because  we  fix  our  whole  faith 
upon  God,  one  and  three.  Immediately  after  the  invocation  of  the 
Trinity  the  following  verse  may  be  said  :  '  Shew  me  a  token  for  good; 
that  they  which  hate  me  may  see  it,  and  be  ashamed;  because  Thou, 
Lord,  hast  Iiolpen  me,  and  comforted  me'  (Psalm  Ixxxvi.,  17).  But 
Jacobites  and  Eutychians,  affirming  that  there  was  in  Christ  one  single 
nature  only,  the  divine  nature;  and  at  the  same  time,  one  single  person 
only  in  the  Godhead,  make  '  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  as  we  are  told,  with 
one  finger  only.  This  error  has  been  eradicated  by  the  decision  of  the 
canon.' 

Some  persons  sign  themselves  from  the  head  even  to  the  feet,  to 
signify  mystically  that  God,  having  bowed  the  heavens,  descended  upon 
earth.  He  did,  indeed,  descend  to  raise  us  from  earth  to  heaven.  They 
next  sign  from  right  to  left ;  first,  to  show  that  they  prefer  things  eternal. 


420  History  of  the  Cross 

.signified  by  the  right  hand,  to  things  temporal,  signified  by  the  left; 
secondly,  to  remind  us  that  Christ  passed  from  the  Jews  to  the  Gentiles : 
and  thirdly,  because  Christ,  coming  from  the  right  hand,  that  is  to  say, 
from  the  P'ather,  conquered  on  the  Cross  the  Devil,  typified  by  the  left, 
whence  the  words,  '  I  came  forth  from  the  Father,  and  am  come  into 
the  world  '  (John  x\-i.,  28).  But  others  signing  themselves  from  left  to 
right  justify  that  formula  by  the  text,  '  He  came  from  the  Father,  he 
descended  into  hell,  and  returned  to  the  throne  of  God."  In  fact,  the\- 
commence  by  making  the  sign  in  the  upiier  part,  which  designates  the 
Father;  then  the\'  descend  below,  meaning  earth;  then  they  go  to  the 
left,  which  marks  hell,  and  so  re-ascend  to  the  right,  signifying  to  heaven, 
for  Christ  thus  descended  from  heaven  to  earth,  and  afterwards  re- 
ascended  from  hell  to  heaven,  where  he  sits  at  the  right  hand  of  God  the 
Father.  Secondly,  by  doing  thus  they  intimate  that  we  pass  from 
misery  to  glory,  and  from  \-ice,  signified  by  the  left,  to  virtue,  whose 
place  is  on  the  right,  as  we  read  in  the  Gospel  of  S.  Matthew.  Christ, 
in  fact,  has  passed  from  death  unto  life.  Thirdly,  because  Christ  raises 
us  through  faith  in  his  Cross  from  things  which  pass  away  to  things 
which  endure  forever. 

In  the  present  day,  however,  an  individual  making  on  his  body  the 
sign  of  the  Cross  employs  the  right  hand  entirely  open,  instead  of  the 
three  fingers  only";  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  uses  one  finger  only,  the 
thumb,  to  trace  the  sign  of  the  Cross  on  the  forehead,  the  mouth,  and 
the  lieart,  -ixhen  (before  reading  the  Gospel,  and  as  a  response  to  the 
deacon  who  appears  to  chant  it)  homage  is  rendered  to  God  by  inclining 
the  body  and  saying,  Gloria  tibi,  Dominc  ! 

These  three  little  signs  are  made  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  and 
on  three  different  parts  of  the  bod\-,  to  signif}'  that  we  believe  with  the 
heart  and  the  mind,  and  are  ready  to  confess  w  ith  the  lips  our  faith  in 
that  divine  word  about  to  be  spoken. 

Tile  thumb  is  also  used  by  the  bishop  and  priest  in  tracing  the 
little  Greek  cross  with  which  the  faithful  are  signed  upon  the  forehead, 
and  other  parts  of  the  both-,  prexious  to  the  administration  of  the  Holy 

'  The  early  (-'hiislians,  says  M.  Cyprien  Robert  iCoitrs  d' Ilicrogl.  Chrct.),  did  not  sign  them- 
selves, as  at  the  ))resent  time,  with  the  entire  liand,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  embrace  lialf  of 
the  body,  but  simply  with  the  first  finger  of  the  right  hand,  and  (as  is  now  done  by  the  (Irceks 
and  Russians)  they  traced  that  sign  three  times  following,  in  the  name  of  each  of  the  three 
Divine  Persons. 


The  Sign  of  tlic  Cross  421 

Sacrament.  And  it  is  witii  tlie  thumb  more  especially,  and  makiiij^  the 
sign  of  the  Cross,  that  the  priest  places  on  our  brow  at  the  commence- 
ment of  Lent,  tlie  ashes  which  are  to  remintl  us,  that  fiom  dust  we  came, 
and  to  dust  we  shall  return.'"  ' 

The  Nestorian  usage  is  similar  to  the  Greek.  The  Armenians  employ 
the  three  fingers,  but  touch  the  left  before  the  right  breast.  The  Syrians 
use  only  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  but  sign  themselves  in  the  same  order 
as  the  Armenians. 

That  the  English  Reformers  intended  to  lc.i\'e  the  use  of  this  sign 
optional,  appears  from  the  "  certain  notes  for  the  more  plain  Explication 
and  decent  ministration  of  Things  contained  in  this  Book  (ist  Common 
Prayer -Book  of  King  Edward  VI.)  as  touching,  kneeling,  crossing, 
holding  up  of  hands,  knocking  upon  the  breast,  and  other  gestures,  they 
may  be  used,  or  left,  as  every  man's  devotion  servcth  without  blame." 

It  seems  needless  to  waste  time  in  refuting  the  charge,  formerly  made 
against  the  Church,  of  idolatry  in  the  use  of  the  sign  of  the  Cross.  If 
any  \veak   conscience  is  still  troubled,   let    Dr.    Hammond 

Charge  of  Idola- 

anSWer   him  :  try  in  the  Use  of 

"    17         ^1  •  f  ^1         ,-  J    u  ,-1  1      •        Ti  Sign  of  the  Cross. 

ror  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  used  by  our  Church  m  Bap- 
tism, which  hath  been  by  some  cryed  down  under  the  title  of  Idolatry, 
two  things  it  will  not  be  amiss  briefly  to  have  obser\-ed ;  i.  That  the 
same  ground  of  zeal  or  passion  that  hath  incited  some  men  lately  to 
charge  it  of  a  breach  of  the  second  commandment,  hath  long  since 
moved  "  one  of  the  same  spirit  to  accuse  it  as  a  sin  against  the  other  nine, 
and  entitle  his  several  chapters,  of  the  Swearing,  Siibbath-breaking, 
Murthur,  Adultery,  Stealing,  False-witness,  etc.,  and  at  last  of  the  con- 
cupiscence of  the  Cross,  as  well  as  the  Idolatry  of  it,  the  reasons  being 
much  alike  for  the  whole  charge.  2.  That  the  signing  with  the  sign  of 
the  Cross  in  that  sacrament,  is  some'what  distant  from  that  which  the 
Papists  use,  and  an  act  of  departure  from  them  in  King  Edward's  second 
liturgy,  more  than  had  been  in  the  first  Reformation.  The  former  cus- 
tom was  to  cross  the  child  at  the  church  door,  when  it  was  brought  to 
Baptism,  but  this  of  ours  as  a  mark  of  initiation  or  reception  into  Christ's 
flock  immediately  following  Baptism,  in  a  kind  of  tessera,  or  military  sign 
that  the  person  thus  consigned  into  Christ's  Militia,  shall  forever  after 
think  himself  obliged  manfully  to  fight,  etc.     A  change  made  merely 

'  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  pp.  408-411.  -  Parker,  Of  the  Cross. 


42  2  History  of  the  Cross 

out  of  compliance  with  them  which  were  jealous  of  too  great  an  inclina- 
tion to  Popery,  and  yet  now  charged  with  the  guilt  of  that  \\hich  it  was 
on  purpose  designed  to  decline."  ' 

Tlie  opinion  of  the  Church  of  England  as  to  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  is 
clearly  expressed  in  her  XXXth  canon,  in  which  she  declares,  it  is  no 
part  of  the  sacrament,  which  is  perfect  and  complete  without  it,  but  that 
in  using  a  sign  "  for  the  remembrance  of  the  Cross,  which  is  very  pre- 
cious to  all  them  that  rightly  believe  in  Jesus  Christ,  she  both  followed 
the  primitive  and  Apostolical  Churches." 

In  a  MS.  account  of  the  Knights  of  Bath,  written  about  the  time  of 
Henry  VI.,  we  find  that  a  sort  of  baptism  formed  part  of  the  ceremony 
„    ,.       ,..        of  initiation.     The  kaight  who  gave  the  "  Charge"  to  the 

Baptism  01  the  t>  &  o 

Knights  of  Bath.  5q^,i|•e  about  to  bc  elevated  to  higher  rank,  put  his  hand  in 
the  bath  in  \\hich  the  candidate  was  seated,  and  taking  up  water,  made 
the  sign  of  the  Cross  upon  the  squire's  left  shoulder,  both  before  and 
behind,  and  then  having  kissed  it,  said.  In  nomine  Patris,  etc.,  adding 
God  send  you  as  much  worship  as  any  of  your  kin."  "  From  this  re- 
baptism  some  philologists  have  derived  the  word  "  dub  "  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  dypon,  to  dip.  Dub  is  still  used  in  some  some  parts  of  the  north 
of  England  to  signify  a  pool."  ^ 

Section  2.  In  Baptism. — At  the  very  threshold  of  the  Church,  the 
very  beginning  of  Christian  life  was  sanctified  with  the  sign  of  the  Cruci- 
fied. Bingham  shows  that  four  several  times  during  the  preparation 
for  consummation  of  Baptism,  the  sign  was  used. 

First,  at  the  admission  of  catechumens  to  the  state  of  catechumen- 
shi[),  and  the  general  name  of  Christian.  Second,  in  the  time  of  ex- 
orcism and  imposition  of  hands,  while  they  were  passing  through  the 
several  stages  of  catechumens.  Third,  at  the  time  of  unction  before 
Baptism.  Fourth,  at  the  unction  of  Confirmation,  which  was  then 
usually  the  conclusion  of  Baptism  both  in  adult  persons,  and  infants."  " 

In  most,  if  not  all,  of  tlie  liturgies  of  the  Eastern  Church,  these  four 
times  of  consecration  are  obser\'cd,  with  the  slight  change  of  the  first, 
the  child  being  sealed  with  the  holy  sign  on  the  eighth  day,  when  he 
receives  his  name.      In  the  liturgy  of  Constantinople,  the  child  accom- 

'  Hammond,  Works,  vol.  i..  p.  254  (ed.  1684). 
'  Millington,  Heraldyy  in  History,  etc.,  p.  78. 
'  Hingham,  Antiquities  of  tlie  Christian  Church,  bk.  xi.,  chap,  ix.,  sec.  4. 


The  Sign  of  the  Cross  4-3 

panics  the  mother  on  tlie  fortietli  day,  and  is  again  signed  with  the  sign 
of  the  Cross.' 

Bingham  gives  full  quotations  from  the  Fathers  and  early  writers,  so  tliat 
it  is  needless  to  repeat  them  here,  showing  that  it  was  no  new  ceremony, 
even  as  early  as  the  fourth  century.     Yet  a  few  examples  may  be  cited. 

S.  Augustine  says,  "  the  Cross  is  always  joined  with  Baptism.  "  ''  The 
author  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  is  ex[)ress  in  explaining  the  various 
ceremonies  of  Baptism.  The  water  is  to  represent  Christ's  g  i^^^^^^^^^ 
burial,  the  oil  to  represent  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  sign  of  the  "Apostolic 

^  ,  i    ii        ,^  J    ii  •     i-  1      ■  Constitutions." 

Cross  to  represent  the  Cross,  and  the  anointmg  or  chrism, 
the  confirmation  of  men's  promises.'    S.  Jerome  writes,   "  I  am  a  Christ- 
ian, born  of  Christian  parents,  and  cany  the  banner  of  the 

S.  Jerome. 

Cross  on  my  forehead."  ' 

In  the  time  of  TertuUian  there  was  no  unction  before  Baptism,  but 
there  was  one  immediately  after  it,  wliich,  together  with  the  imposition  of 
hands,  was  properly  a  ceremony  belonging  to  confirmation, 

Tertullian. 

and  not  to  be  confounded  with  those  of  Baptism.  He  says, 
"  The  flesh  is  washed,  that  the  soul  may  be  cleansed;  the  flesh  is 
anointed,  that  the  soul  may  be  consecrated  ;  the  flesh  is  signed  \i.  c,  with 
the  Cross]  that  tlie  soul  may  be  guarded;  the  flesh  is  overshadowed  by 
imposition  of  hands,  that  the  soul  may  be  illuminated  by  the  Spirit  ; 
the  flesh  is  fed  by  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ,  that  the  soul  may  receive 
nourishment  from  God."'' 

Even  in  the  consecration  of  the  water,  S.  Augustine  says,  "  the 
water  itself  was  signed  with  the  Cross  of  Christ."  '  And  the  author  who 
writes  under  the  name  of  Dionysius  records,  "  that  in  his 

Dionysius. 

time  while  the  priests  were  finishing  the  unction,  the  Bishop 

by  invocation  sanctified  the  water  in  the  font,  thrice  pouring  in  some  of 

the  holy  chrism,  tracing  the  form  of  a  Cross."  ' 

Many  sacraments  we  receive,"   says  the  same  saint,  "  one  in  one 

'  Neale,  Hist.  EasU-ni  Clturcli,  Introciuct.,  chaps,  v.,  vi.  The  modern  E.istern  Church 
nearly  follows  the  ancient,  for  in  the  fourth  century,  according  to  Palmer,  candidates  for  baptism 
were  thrice  signed  on  the  forehead  before  the  water  was  consecrated  and  the  sacrament  adminis- 
tered.     Orij^iiu-s  Liturgica,  vol.  ii.,  chap,  v.,  sec.  8. 

'  S.  Augustine,  ser.  loi  ;  £>e  Tempore,  p.  290. 

^Apostolic  Constitutions,  bk.  iii.,  chap.  17. 

''  S.  Jerome,  Epist,  113  ;  Pro- fat.  on  Job,  chap.  iii. 

'  Tertullian,  De  Resuncclione,  cap.  S. 

^  S.  Augustine,  Horn.  27,  ex.  50. 

'  Dionysius,  De  Hieraeh.,  Eccles.,  chap,  ii.,  p.  253. 


4:^4  History  of  the  Cross 

way,  another  in  another,  some  ye  know  we  receive  with  the  mouth,  and 
some  we  receive  over  the  whole  body.  But  because  the  forehead  is 
the  seat  of  tlie  bhish  of  shame.  He,  who  said  '  Whosoever 
shall  be  ashamed  of  me  before  men,  of  him  will  I  be 
ashamed  before  my  Father  which  is  in  Heaven,'  set,  so  to  speak,  that 
very  ignominy  [/.  r. ,  the  Cross,  the  badge  of  infamy]  which  the  pagans 
mock  at,  in  the  seat  of  our  shame."  ' 

Yet  another  e.xquisite  quotation  from  the  same  Fatlier:  "  His  sign 
we  bear  on  our  forehead,  whereof  we  are  not  ashamed  if  we  bear  it,  be- 
cause in  our  hearts  His  sign  is  that  of  His  humiliation.  By  a  star  the 
wise  men  knew  Him.  and  thus  was  a  sign  given  of  the  Lord,  heavenly 
and  glorious.  He  would  not  have  a  star  to  be  on  the  forehead  of  His 
believers  as  His  sign,  but  the  Cross,  whereby  humbled,  by  the  same 
glorified.  He  lifteth  up  the  humble  even  by  the  same  to  which  being 
humbled.  He  himself  depended."  " 

Hence  the  reason  why,  when  the  priest  takes  the  child  in  his  arms  in 

Baptism,  he  signs  the  Cross  on  his  brow  and  says,  "  We  receive  this  child 

...    „        into  the  congregation  of  Christ's  flock,  and  do  sign  him  with 

Sign  of  the  Cross  £5       t>  t> 

in  Baptism.         ^]^g  ^jg,^  ^f  []^g  Cross,  in  token  that  he  may  not  be  ashamed 
to  confess  the  faith  of  Christ  Crucified,"  etc. 

It  does  not  seem,  however,  that  any  of  the  most  ancient  rituals  ap- 
pointed the  sign  of  the  Cross  to  be  made  exactly  at  the  same  time  that 
the  English  and  American  branches  of  the  Church  ilirect.  The  position 
of  the  consignation  in  the  service  which  was  appointed  in  1552"  is  pe- 
,    ..    „    .  culiar  to  Great  Britain  and  to  the  Churches  derived  from  it. 

In  the  Eastern 

'^*'"''''''-  In   the  Eastern   Church,  about  the  fourth  century,  candi- 

dates were  signed   three  times  before  the  water  was  consecrated,  and 
Baptism  administered.' 

In  the  Prayer-Book  of  Edward  VI.  we  find  the  old  custom  still  re- 
tained of  crossing  before  Baptism.     The  first  crossing  was  placed  upon 
both  the  forehead  and  lireast,  the  ministrant  sa\-ing,  "  N., 

In  the  Prayer- 
Book  of  receive  this  sign  of  the  holy  Cross  both  on  thv  forehead  and 

Edward  VI. 

on   thy  breast,  in   t(>]<en   that  thou  shalt  not  be  ashametl  to 

confess  thy  faith  in  Christ  crucified." 

'  S.  /Viigiistine  on  I's.ilms,  vol.  vi,,  p.  270,  Oxf.  Trans.. 

^  S.  .Augustine  on  S.  Jolm.     Horn.,  vol.  iii.,  p.  33,  Oxf.  Trans. 

"  Procter  on  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  p.  313. 

*  Palmer,  Originis  Liturgicic,  vol.  ii.,  chap,  v.,  sec.  8. 


The  .Sign  of  the  Cross  425 

Whcatlcy  tells  us,  that  it  was  an  ancient  custom  for  masters  and  t;en- 
erals  to  mark  the  forehead  or  hantls  of  their  servants  and  soldiers  with 
their  names  or  marks,  that  it  mit^ht  be  known  to  whom  they  did  belong; 
and  to  this  custom  the  angel  in  the  Revelation  is  thought  to  allude, 
"  Hurt  not  the  earth  .  .  .  till  we  have  sealed  the  servants  of  our 
God  in  their  foreheads  ' '  ( Rev.  vii. ,  3 )  and  again  the  redeemed  of  the  Lamb 
are  said  to  have  "His  Father's  name  written  in  their  foreheads"  (Rev. 
xiv.,  I),  and  lastly  in  the  same  chapter  (verse  9)  the  great  adversary  shall 
sign  Ids  servants  also.  "If  any  man  .  .  .  receive  the  mark  of  the 
beast  in  his  forehead."  ' 

Tliis  custom  of  marking  different  parts  of  the  body,  appears  to  have 
been  common  among  the  heathen.  Among  the  Hindoos,  the  different 
sects  who  worshipijcd  more  especially  Vishnu  or  Siva  are 

Hindoo  Custom 

distinguished,  the  first  by  a  longitudinal  mark  of  vermilion  of  Marking 

on  the  forehead,  the  latter  by  a  parallel  line  of  turmeric  or 
saffron.     This  mark  was  called   the  lilitk  and  can  only  be  performed  by 
a  Brahmin,  and  is  indispensable  before  entering  a  temple.'' 

Among  the  Egyptians,  if  any  slave  fled  to  the  temple  of  Hercules 
and  had  the  sacred  marks  impressed  upon  him,  he  was  placed 

Egyptians. 

under  the  immediate  protection  of  that  deity,  and  was  privi- 
leged from  all  harsh  treatment." 

The  Greeks  also  branded  their  soldiers,  so  that  they  could  not  desert 
in  time  of  war.'  S.  Paul  appears  to  allude  to  this  custom,  when  he  says, 
I  bear  in  my  body  the  marks  of  the  Lord  Jesus  "  (Gal.  vi.,  17).  The 
Jacobite,  so  called,  rite  of  Baptism  by  fire,  in  which  the  Cross  was  im- 
printed with  a  red-hot  iron  upon  the  foreheads  of  the  neophytes,  has 
been  elsewhere  described. 

A  writer  in  Notes  and  Queries''  gives  the  simple  explanation  that 
the  S.  Andrew's  cross  in  the  Greek  Church  represents  the  initials  of 
Christ,  the  symbolical  affixing  of  which  (sealing)  before  g  Andrew's 
and  after  baptism,  indicates  that  the  name  of  Christ  is  im-  cross. 

posed  on  the  believer,   who  takes  his  new,   or  Christian,  name  at  bap- 
tism.     This  mark  on  the  forehead  refers  to  Rev.  vii.,  3;  xiv.,  I  ;  xx.,  4. 

'  Whealley  on  Common  Prayer,  Baptism  of  Infants,  sec.  7. 

'  Maurice,  Indian  Antiquities,  vol.  v.,  p.  S2. 

'  Blackwell,  Sacred  Classics,  vol.  ii.,  p.  66. 

*  Potter,  Archicologia  Gneca,  vol.  ii.,  p.  7  ;  see  also  Deane,  Serpent  IVorsliip,  p.  142. 

'  Notes  and  Queries,  vol.  viii.,  p.  461. 


426  History  of  the  Cross 

The  longer  Catechism  of  the  Greek  Church,  in  answer  to  the  question, 
What  force  has  the  sign  of  the  Cross  used  on  this  and  other  occasions  ? 
says,  "  The  name  of  Jesus  Christ  crucified  can  not  only  be  pronounced 
with  faith  by  the  motion  of  tl-.e  lips,  but  it  can  be  represented  as  well 
b\-  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  when  made  with  faith  by  the  motion  of  the 
hand,  or  in  any  other  way."  '  In  the  "  Sarum  ritual  "  the  Cross  is  made 
at  the  words,  "  sanctify  this  water,"  etc. 

The  spiritual  significance  of  the  rite  is  well  expressed  in  the  aspiiation 
of  the  Rev.  John  Marriott,  written  on  his  son  Charles's  christening-day: 

"Grant  to  this  child  the  inward  grace 

While  we  the  outward  sign  impart. 
The  Cross  we  mark  ujion  his  face, 

Do  Thou  engrave  upon  his  heart. 
May  it  his  pride  and  glory  be 

Beneath  Thy  banner  fair  unfurl'd 
To  march  to  certain  victory, 

O'er  sin,  o'er  Satan,  o'er  the  world."" 

Section  3.  In  Confirmation. — Anciently,  Confirmation  was  often 
called  Consignation  (o<ppay\5)  by  the  Greeks,  from  the  in\ariable  use  of 
,,        .    ,.  the  Cross  with  the  unction.      Ncale  cites  the  following  in- 

Usage  in  the  ^ 

Eastern  Church,  gfances  from  carly  liturgies: 

The  Gelasian  is  this:  "  The  sign  of  Christ  for  eternal  life."  The 
present  Roman:  "  N.,  I  sign  thee  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  -|-,  and 
-  ,    .     ^  confirm  thee  with  the  chrism  of  salvati(Mi.      In  the  name  of 

Gelasian  Sacra- 

mentary.  t:]^^.    leather,    and    of    the    Son,    and    of    the    Holy   Ghost. 

Roman.  a  •  t 

Amen. 
The  Pontifical  of  Egbert  of  York,  circa  .\.D.  750:  "  Receive  the  sign 
of  the  holy  Cross  in  the  Chrism  of  Salvation  in  Christ  Jesus 

Egbert  of  York. 

for  life  eternal. " 
The  Pontifical  of  Cadurces,  tenth  century:  "  I  confirm  and  sign  thee 
with  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  +,  in  the  Name  of  the  Father, 

Cadurces. 

and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost." 
The  Ritual  of  Moisac,  tenth  century:  "  I  confirm  thee  with  the  sign 
of  the  Cross,  +•      1"   the   Name  of  the  P'athcr,  and  of  the 

Moisac. 

Son,  and  of  the  IIdIv  Ghost  for  life  eternal.      Amen." 

'  .S.  Cyril,  Catcchct.  Lectures,  vol.  xiii.,  p.  36,  to  which  reference  li.is  already  been  made. 
'  Burgon,  Lives  of  Twelve  Good  A/en,  p.  155. 


The  Sign  of  the  Cross  427 

The  Pontifical  of  Poitiers,  twelfth  century:  "  God  signs  thee  with 
the  se;il  of   His  faitii,  in  consignation  of  faith,  in  the  name 

Poitiers. 

of   the    Father,   and    of   the   Son,  and   of  the   iloly  Ghost. 
Amen." 

The  Pontifical  of  Vienna :  "  I  confirm  thee  in  the  Name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost.     Amen.      Peace  be 

Vienna, 

with  thee  and   w  ith  thy  spirit.     The  sign  of  Christ  for  life 
eternal.     Amen." 

The  Pontifical  of  Paris,  fourteenth  century:  "  N.,  I  sign  thee  with  the 
sign  of  the  holy  Cross,  and  confirm  thee  with  the  chrism  of  Salvation. 
In  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy 

Paris. 

Ghost;    that   thou    mayest   be    filled   with   the   same    Holy 
Ghost,  and  mayest  have  life  eternal." 

Proceeding  to  the  East,  we  find  in  the  present  Ritual  of  Constanti- 
nople that  the  priest  "  Anoints  the  baptized  person  with  holy  oil,  making 
the  sign  of  the  Cross  on  his  forehead,  and  eyes,  and  nostrils, 

Constantinople. 

and  mouth,  and  both  ears,  and  breast,  and  hands,  and  feet, 
saying,  '  The  seal  of  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.     Amen.' 

In  the  Arabic  ritual  the  sign  of  the  Cross  is  used  upon  the  forehead, 
temples,  eyes,  ears,  nostrils,  and  mouth,  hands,  breast,  knees,  and  feet, 
shoulders,  shoulder-blades,  and  arm-joints.     The  Armenian 

Arabic. 

is  the  same;  e.xcept  that  the  anointing  mcnti(ined  in  the 

last  clause  is  between  the  shoulders  ;  no  further  symbolized.     The  Coptic 

also   is   very   nearly  similar,  except   that   the  rubric  directs, 

Coptic. 

Here  breathe  upon  the  forehead,  in  the  form  of  the  glori- 
ous  Cross,    and   say.    Receive   the    Holy   Ghost,   and   be  a  pure  vessel, 
through  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord,  to  Whom,  etc." 

The  Ethiopic  rite  is  nearly  the  same.  In  the  Nestorian,  each  of  the 
candidates  is  signed,  with  the  thumb,  on  the  forehead.      In  Ethiopic. 

the  Syrio-Jacobite  both  the  foreheads  and  the  throats  of  the  Nestorian. 

candidates  are  signed  thrice.' 

The  Anglo-Saxons  followed  the  custom  of  the  Church  from  which 
they  derived  their  orders,'  and  the  Scotch  still  retain  the  sign  of  the 
Cross;  but  the  Church  of  England  has  omitted  it  since  A. D.  1552. 

In  the  first  Prayer-Book  of  Edward  VI.,  in  the  Order  of  Confirma- 

'  Neale,  Hist.  EasUrn  Church,  Alexandria,  part  i.,  General  Introduction,  pp.  1001-1006. 
'  Lingard,  Antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  note. 


428  History  of  the  Cross 

tion,  tlie  minister  prays:    "  Sign  them,  O   Lord,  and  mark  them  to  be 

Tiiine   forever,   by  virtue  of  thy  holy  Cross  and    Passion   Confirm   and 

strengthen  them  with  the  inward  Unction  of  Thy  Holy  Ghost 

First  Prayer- 

Book of  Edward   mercifully  unto  cverlasting  life.     Amen."     The  rubric  fur- 

VI. 

ther  directs,  "  Then  the  Bishop  shall  cross  them  in  the 
forehead,  saying,  "  I  sign  thee  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  and  lay  my 
hand  upon  thee.  In  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of 
the   Holy  Ghost.      Amen." 

It  will  be  seen  that  confirmation  was  expected  immediately  to  fol- 
low baptism. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  above,  the  minister  prays  "  Sign  them,  etc.," 

but  the  bishop  is  directed  to  give  the  sign.     This  arose  from  the  ancient 

custom  of  administering  chrism  after  Baptism.     As  Tertul- 

Chrism.  ^  ^ 

lian  says,  as  soon  as  we  come  out  from  the  bath,  we  are 
anointed  thoroughly  with  the  consecrated  unguent  according  to  the  an- 
cient rule,  .  .  .  next  to  this,  the  hand  is  laid  upon  us,  calling  and 
inviting  the  Holy  Spirit  through  the  blessing."  ' 

Easter  and  Whitsunday  were  formerly  set  apart  for  this  ordinance. 
But  as  Christianity  increased  and  numbers  of  persons  wishing  Baptism, 
_,.       „  .  .      .  espcciallv  when  sick,  or  those  in  extremis,  could  not  resort 

1  imes  bet  Apart         1  ' 

for  Confirmation,  f,^  {-j-,g  bishop  at  Convenient  times,  in  order  that  they  might 
not  be  totally  deprived  of  the  spiritual  strength  and  defence  wliich  con- 
firmation afforded,  it  was  allowed  that  the  presbyter,  or  minister,  who 
baptized  should  have  the  liberty  to  anoint  the  neoph)-te,  but  with  these 
two  cautions — First,  that  the  chrism  should  be  first  consecrated  b}-  the 
bishop;  secondly,  that  he  should  anoint  without  the  imposition  of  hands. 
By  this  course  the  bishop  parted  with  the  shell,  but  retained  the  kernel, 
reserving  to  himself  the  apostolical  rite  of  imposition  of  hands,  and 
also  the  sole  power  of  consecrating  the  chrism.  The  sixth  canon  of  the 
Council  of  Carthage,  and  the  first  canon  of  the  Arausican  synod  declared 
that  no  minister  who  hath  taken  the  office  of  Baptism,  ought  to  go 
abroad  without  the  chrism,  for  we  have  agreed  it  shovdd  be  used  at 
once";  but  in  case  one  was  brought  to  confirmation  without  having 
been  anointed,'  the  bishop,  according  to  the  canon  just  quoted  of  the 

'  Tcrtullian  on  H.iptism,  sees.  7,  8,  p.  164,  Oxf.  Trans. 

'  L'lCstrange,  Alliaiii-r  of  Divine  Offices,  p.  405.  liurnct  on  I  lie  ArticUs,  ,\rt.  \\\'.  ;  Ncale. 
Hist.  Eastern  Church,  Intru.,  p.  looi,  gives  quutalioiis  fiuni  numerous  liuirgies  in  which  the 
holy  sign  is  used. 


The  Sign  of  the  Cross  429 

Council  of  Carthage,  was  to  be  put  in  mind  of  it,  in  order  that  it  niiylit 
then  be  administered. 


Section  4.  In  the  Holy  Eucharist. — In  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  Wheatley  says,  "  1  do  not  know  that  there  is  a  single  ancient 
liturgy  in  being,  but  what  shows  that  this  sign  was  always 

Sign  of  the  Cross 

made  use  of  in  some  part  or  other  of  the  office  of  the  Com-  in  Ancient 

•  <  ,        ,■       \  ■  11        1   •    ,         •  ■       ,  Liturgies. 

munion.  S.  Augustine  says,      which  sign,  unless  it   be 

applied  whether  to  the  brows  of  the  believing,  or  to  the  very  water  out 
of  which  they  are  regenerated,  or  to  the  oil  wherewith  they  are  anointed 
with  the  chrism,  or  to  tJie  sacrifice  ivlicrcby  tlicy  m-c  fed,  none 

Necessary  in 

of  these  are  duly  performed.""     S.    Chrysostom  says  ex-        sacramental 

,  ,  .      .  Acts. 

pressly,    that   it    was    not    only   used    by    Christians    every 
day,    but    particularly    at    the    holy    table,    and    in    the    ordination    of 
priests;  and  that  its  glory  sliined  with  the  body  of  Christ  in  the  mys- 
tical supper.  ' 

The  synod  in   Tnillo  ordered  that  those  coming  to  the   Holy  Com- 
munion  should    form   with   their  hands  the  sign  of  the  Cross.'      It  has 
been  doubted  whether  it   meant   that  the   arms  should   be 
crossed  upon  the  breast  {caiiccl/atis  bracliiis)  or  that  one  hand         counci'i"  in 
should  be  placed  upon  the  other;  both  customs  are  ancient.  TruUo.  • 

S.    Cyril    of    Jerusalem   directs:    "Approaching    therefore,  s.  Cyrirs 

^  ■'  1  r  o  Direction. 

come  not  with  thy  wrists  extended,  or  thy  fingers  open  ;  but 
make  thy  left   hand  as  if  a  throne   for  thy  right,  which  is  on  the  eve  of 
receiving  the  King.     And  having  hollowed  th)-  palm,  receive  the  Body 
of  Christ,  saying  after  it.  Amen."'     The  reception  of  the  elements  in 
little  vessels  of  gold  or  other  material  was  prohibited. 

In  the  P'irst  Prayer-Book  of  Edward  VI.  the  sirrn  of  the 

^  '^  First  Prayer- 

Cross  was  ordered  at  the  words    "  Ble-f-ss  and    sanc-ftify  Book  of 

Edward  VI. 

the  gifts,  etc." 

'  Wheatley  on  Com.  Prayer,  Lord's  Supper,  sec.  2. 

'  S.  Aug.  on  S.  John.  Horn.,  p.  ii8,  sec.  5.  S.  Aug.  had  no  fear  lest  his  words  should 
te  misunderstood,  and  the  mere  action  unduly  exalted.  The  context  explains  :  "What  is  the 
sign  of  Christ  save  the  Cross  of  Christ?  .  .  .  The  Cross  of  Christ  signifies  .  .  .  '  But 
they  that  are  Jesus  Christ's  have  crucified  the  flesh  with  its  passions  and  lusts,'  Gal.  v.,  24." 

^  S.  Chrysos.,  Dcmonstrat.  Quod  Christus  sit  Dcus,  torn,  v.,  cap.  9,  p.  840. 

^  Canon  lor. 

^  S.  Cyril,  Catec.  Lee.  xxiii.,  21.  In  the  Oxf.  Trans,  there  is  an  error  that  reads,  "hal- 
lowed thy  palm  "  instead  of  "  hollowed,"  concava  maim. 


430  History  of  the  Cross 

Section  5.     In  Benediction. — The  sign  of  the  Cross  in  benediction 
,_.  .     in  botli  tlie   Greek  and   Latin   brandies   of  the   Church   is 

Manner  of  Giving 

the  Benediction,  always  givcn  with  thc  right  hand,  the  hand  of  power.     The 

mode,  however,  differs  between  them.      In  the  Greek  Church  the  fore- 

fintjer  is  open  to  form  an  I  (iota),  the  middle  finger  is  curved 

The  Gre2k  Form.  . 

like  a  C' (the  ancient  sigtna),  the  tliunib  and  annular  finger 
are  crossed  forming  a  X  [chi  ),  and  the  little  finger  is  bent  to  shape  a  C 
{sigind).  Thus  they  obtain  /  G,  X  C,  the  Greek  monogram  of  ItjaovC 
XpiffToG  (Jesus  Christ).' 

The  Latin  benediction  is  gi\-en  with  thc  thumb  and  first  two  fingers 
open,  the  annular  and  little  fingers  being  closed.  Durandus  and  Beleth 
affirm  that  this  manner  of  blessing  is  symbolical,  the  three 
open  fingers  signifying  the  Holy  Trinity,  while  the  two 
closed  represent  the  twofold  nature.  Divine  and  human,  of  the  Second 
Person.'  Anciently,  the  bishops  gave  the  benediction  after  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  just  before  the  Communion.  It  was  not  until  the  eleventh  cent- 
ury that  the  custom  became  general  for  the  priest  to  give  the  blessing 
at  the  end  of  the  Mass.  In  the  same  century  it  was  granted  to  some 
abbots  to  sign  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  even  out  of  the  Mass,  a  form 
of  blessing  previous!}-  confined  to  the  bishops.^ 

Formerly,  both  bishops  and  priests  gave  the  benediction  alike,  but 
latterly,  a  distinction  has  been  made;  the  Episcopal  blessing  being  be- 
stowed with  three  fingers  open,   while  the  presbyters  were 

Benediction  of  _ 

Bishops  and  obliged  to  use  the  fidl  open  hand.  The  bishop  also  faces 
the  congregation,  but  the  priest  stands  in  profile  with  his 
hand  turned  edgewise.''  Again,  in  the  performance  of  ecclesiastical 
ceremonies  in  which  the  bishop  gives  tliree  successive  benedictions,  and 
three  times  makes  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  the  priest  gives  only  one  bless- 
ing, and  makes  a  single  sign. 

Benediction  by  ^^  '^  worthy  of  notc  to  thosc  wlio,  like  us,  have  endeav- 

jews  and  Pagans.  Q^cd  to  tracc  Christian  rites  and  usages  to  pre-Christian  times, 
that  both  the  Ilebrews  and   pagans  gave  their  benediction  with  three 

'  Guide  for  Fainting,  a  Byzantine  MS.  quoted  by  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  407; 
Labarte,  I/andbook  of  Art  of  the  Middle  Ages,  p.  144. 

^  Durandus,  Rationale  Divin.  Offi.,  lib.  v.,  cap.  ii.  ;  J.  Belitli.  F.xplicatio  Divin.  Offi-, 
cap.  xxxix.,  de  Evangclio ;  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  ]i.  408. 

^  Stephen  liorgia,  De  Cruce  Velitcrna,  chap,  xv.,  quoted  in  I'ugin's  Gloss.,  "  Cross." 

■*  The  symbolism  preserved  in  heraldry  ;  on  a  crest  a  helmet  turned  full  face  belongs  to  one 
in  authority,  side  face,  to  an  inferior  rank,  who  received  thc  command.     See  Newton. 


The  Sign  of  the  Cross  431 

fingers  extended,  and  uttered  a  malediction  with  the  hand  closed.' 
Count  Caykis  gives  a  representation  of  an  Egyptian  amulet,  a  forearm 
and  hand  with  the  fingers  arranged  as  in  the  Latin  bendiction. 

"  S.  John  the  Baptist  is  usually  represented  l)y  the  Greeks  in  the  act 
of  blessing  with  the  right  hand,  holding  in  the  left,  his  head  the  reed 
cross,  or  the  scroll,  and  calling  men  to  repentance.      S.  John 

S.  John  Baptist. 

is  a  man,  a  minister  of  God,  the  precursor  of  Christ.  To 
him  all  the  power  and  prerogati\'es  of  the  priesthood  were  delegated  by 
God.  He  therefore  gives  the  blessing  by  good  authority.  Yet,  amongst 
us,  S.  John  the  Baptist  is  always  represented  holding  the  Lamb  of  God 
in  his  left  arm,  the  index  of  the  right  hand  being  engaged  in  pointing  to 
it;  that  hand  points  but  does  not  bless."  ' 

In  the  consecration  of  a  bishop,  or  an  archbishop,  in  the  Russian  branch 
of  the  Greek  Church,  the  archbishop  crosses  his  hands  in  giving  the  bene- 
diction." This  subject  is  treated  most  elaborately  in  Gret-  in  the  Russian 
ser,  to  whom  we  refer  those  who  desire  further  information.  Church. 

Section  6.  In  Ordination. — S.  Chrysostom,  as  has  been  already 
stated,"  refers  to  the  use  of  the  sign  of  the  Cross  in  the  office  of  Holy 
Orders.  Suicer  quotes  from  the  author  who  writes  as  Dionysius,  that 
the  imposition  of  hands  in  ordination  was  called  ffqipayis,  consignation, 
and  ffTavfjnsioi/v  ffqjpayi's,  consignation  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  because 
of  the  sign  traced  on  the  brow  of  the  candidate  by  the  bishop.^ 

The  sign  was  used  in  ancient  forms  of  ordination  in  the  Greek 
Church,"  and  is  still  preserved  in  Russia,  a  single  consignation  being 
used  for  the  lower  orders,  bat  a  triple  one  at  the  consecra-        ,    .,,   ^     ,, 

A^  In  the  Qreek 

tion  of  a  bishop  or  an  archbishop.'  church. 

I  .ike  many  other  rites  in  the  Christian  Church,  it  had  been  foreshadowed 

in  the  Jewish.     The  High  Priest  upon  his  installation  was  anointed  with 

holy  oil  upon  the  forehead  in  the  shape  of  a  S.  Andrew's  or  Saltire  cross." 

'  M.  Cyprien  Robert  (Coiirs  d' Hioogl.  Chret.),  quoted  by  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i., 
p.  411,  note. 

■  Didron,  Christ.  Icon.,  vol.  i.,  p.  407. 

'^  King,  Greek  Ck.  in  Russia,  "  Rites  of  Consecrating  Bishops,"  p.  294. 

*  S.  Chrysostom,  Horn.,  liv.,  S.  Matt.,  p.  735,  Oxf.  Trans. 

'  -Suicer,  Thesaur.,  6q>payi'i  ;  Dionysius,  De  Hierarch.  Eccles.,  cap.  5,  pp.  312,  314,  364; 
Bingham,  Antiq.,  bk.  iv.,  chap,  vii.,  sec.  12,  and  bk.  ii.,  chap,  xix.,  sec.  17. 
'  Goar,  Eucolo.s^ium.,  etc.,  pp.  247-250. 
''  King.  Greek  Ch.  in  Russia,  pp.  275,  279,  2S1,  2S5,  299. 

*  Seiden,  lib.  ii. ,  De  Success,  in  Pontif.,  cap.  v.  ;  Bosio,  bk.  iii.,  chap.  ii. 


432  History  of  the  Cross 

The  form  is  still  preserved  in  the  rite  of  Benediction  and  Coronation 
of  the  English  sovereigns.  The  directions  in  the  service  are  that,  after 
the  king  has  been  disrobed  of  his  crimson  gown  and  his  cap  of  state, 
and  taken  his  place  before  the  altar,  the  Dean  of  Westminster  shall  take 
the  ainpulhx  and  pour  some  of  the  holy  oil  into  the  anointing  spoon  and 
with  it  the  archbishop  shall  anoint  the  king,  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  on  the 
crown  of  the  head,  and  on  the  palms  of  both  the  hands,  saying,  "  Be 
thou  anointed  with  holy  oil,  as  kings,  priests,  and  prophets  were 
anointed."  ' 

Section  7.     In  Prayer. — As    might    be    expected,    from    early   ages 

the    suppliant     has     used     the    mute    but    expressive    appeal     to    the 

Tudge,  bv  exhibiting  the  sign  of  the  sacrifice.      Tertullian 

Sign  of  the  Cross   •<         &     '       -  »  t> 

in  Prayer.  says,  that  Christians  usually  prayed  with  their  arms  elevated 

Tertullian.  ^^  represent  Christ's  Passion."     So,  also,  Minucius:  "  They 

worshi[)ped  God  with  a  pure  mind  and  their  hands  stretched 

Paulinus. 

forth  in  the  form  of  a  cross."  ^  Paulinus  describes  S.  Am- 
brose, while  breathing  his  last  breath,  as  praying  with  his  hands  extended 
in  the  form  of  a  cross,*  and  Prudentius,  relating  the  martyrdom  of 
I'ructuosus,  a  Spanish  bishop,  says,  the  bands  which  tied  his  arms  were 
first  burnt  off  without  touching  his  skin  ;  for  they  durst  not  restrain 
those  arms  which  were  to  be  lifted  to  the  Father  in  the  manner  of  a 
cross.  Examples  of  this  posture  in  prayer  are  fountl  in  the  Catacombs. 
Eusebius  informs  us  that  the  Emperor  Constantine  ordered  his  own 
image  to  be  stamped  on  his  coins,  representing  him  as  a  suppliant  with 
eyes  and  arms  stretched  upward  to  his  Creator. 

Bosio,  in  his  Triniiiph  of  t lie  Cross,  calls  our  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  arms  naturall_\-  are  raised  so  as  to  form  a  cross — in  surprise,  in  giving 
thanks,  or  entreating  for  pardon  or  aid  in  danger.'' 

We  find  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  used  this  posture  in  prayer,  as  is 

figured  in  the  hieroglyphics  on  the  obelisk  before  the  Church  of  S.  John 

Lateran  at  Rome.      This  also  was  the  custom  of  the  Romans, 

The  Cross  as  a 

Posture  in  "  tcudois  ad  sidcra  pal iiuis."   Tile  Hebrews  s[)reatl  forth  their 

Prayer. 

hands  before  the  Lord;  in  short,  this  posture  in  devotion 
we  believe  may  be  traced  the  world  over,   even  almost  to  our  day,  for 

'  Palmer,  Oiigiius  Liturgicic,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  338,  339. 

'  Tertullian,  Apology,  p.  70,  Oxf.  Trans.  ''  Paulinus,   Vit,  Ambros.,  p.  12. 

^  Minucius,  Dial,  p.  go.  '  liosio.  La  Trioiijaiitc  Croce,  p.  146. 


The  Sign  of  tlic  Cross 


433 


Jeremy  Taylor  recommends  as  discij)line  in  overcoming  lust  and  in- 
ordinate desires,  "  painful  postures  in  prayer,  reciting  our  devotions 
with  our  arms  extended  at 
fidl  lent;th,  like  Moses  praying 
against  Amalek,  or  our  blessed 
Saviour  hanging  upon  his 
painful    bed    of    sorrows,    the 

C'  '    1 
ross. 

Besides  the  primary  mean- 
ing of  the  cruciform    posture, 
there  was  also  an- 
other     intimated. 

Origen  says  the  lifting  up  of 
the  arms  was  to  represent  the 
lifting  up  of  their  hearts  to  God  ; 
and  Chrysostom  makes  use  of 
the  same  idea  in  expounding 
Psalm  cxii.,  2,  "  Let  the  lifting 
up  of  my  hands  be  as  the  even- 
ing sacrifice."   "  What  means," 


Origen. 


The  Cross  as  a  Posture  in  Prayer. 
From  Maitlaml's  Church  in  t)ie  Catacombs, 


says  he,  "  the  stretching  forth 

our  hands  in  prayer  ?  Because  they  are  instrumental  in  all  sorts  of 
wickedness  ...  so  external  symbols  should  put  men  in  mind  of 
internal  purit\"." 

Section  8.  In  Signatures. — The  sign  of  the  Cross  in  signature  was 
used  for  various  reasons.  First,  because  of  the  inability  of  the  parties 
to  write.     The  clerkly  accomplishment  of  penmanship  was 

Reasons  for  Use 

lacking  in  the  education  of   many  noblemen.     As  late  as      ofthe  cross  in 

Signatures. 

the  fourteenth  century  even,  we  find  that  the  celebrated  Du 
Guesclin,  Constable  of  France,  could  neither  read  nor  write."  The 
charter  of  William  the  Conqueror,  preserved  in  the  museum  of  Rouen, 
bears  his  mark.  Second,  on  account  of  physical  disability  arising  from 
age  or  infirmity;  as  in  the  case  of  Eugenius  at  the  Council  of  Constanti- 
nople, A.D.  553,  who  subscribed  by  the  hand  of  Paul  his  deacon.'     Third, 

'  Taylor,  Holy  Living,  "  Of  Chastity." 

'  S.  Palaye,  Mcinoires  sur  I' Ancienne  Chcvalerie,  lib.  ii.,  p.  82. 

'  Maitland,  Dark  Ages,  p.  13. 


434  History  of  the  Cross 

an  affectation  of  dignity,   because   persons   of   high  official  rank  chose 
oftentimes  to  have  tlieir  names  written  by  their  notaries. 

Even  as  late  as  the  days  of  Shakespeare  most  of  the  great  men, 
according  to  Blackstone,  wrote  very  badly.  Shakespeare  makes  Hamlet 
give  the  reason : 

"  I  once  did  hold  it,  as  our  statists  do, 
A  baseness  to  write  fair,  and  labor'd  much 
How  to  forget  that  learning."  ' 

"  But  the  sign  of  the  Cross,"  says  Maitland,  was  "  usual  for  those  who 
could  write,"  being,  "  in  fact,  the  confirmation  and  signature,  and  the 
subscriber,  in  thus  making  the  sign  of  his  holy  religion,  was  considered 
as  taking  an  oath.  He  was,  in  fact,  said  itiaiin  Jiinrrc,''  and  for  greater 
solemnity  the  Cross  was  made  with  the  consecrated  wine  " 

Wine  of  the 

Eucharist  Min-    mingled  with   the  ink.     The   Patriarch  Ignatius  thus  sub- 

gled  with  Ink.  .,         i  ,  r      ^  •     ^      -y      r^  -i        r    /^  -  , 

scribed  to  the  acts  of  the  eighth  Council  oi  Constantinople, 
A.D.  870;  an  earlier  example  was  given  by  Pope  Theodore  I.,'  and  it  is 
said  the  same  profanit}-  was  practised  in  signing  the  false  peace  between 
Charles  the  Bold  and  Bernard,  Count  of  Toulouse,  in  the  ninth  century. 
In  early  Saxon  legal  instruments,  sigilhcm  is  used  to  signify  the  sign 
of  the  Cross.  In  their  charters  the  words  occur,  "  sigiiinn  sec"  or  "  sanc- 
_.  .,,  .,    tissimic  cruets  ct  vcxilluiii,"  as  svnonymous  with  sigillum, 

SigiUum.  I.e..  the  '  /  -'  ^>  » 

Sign  of  the  Cross.  .,,.,  J  the  sigii  uloue  was  frequently  used.'' 

So  little  regard  was  had  for  a  simple  promise,  or  oath,  that  the 
presence  of  sacred  relics  or  the  Cross,  was  necessary  to  ensure  the 
Oath  upon  Reii-  fidelity  of  the  contracting  parties.  In  the  seventh  century, 
quary  Crosses,  -^vhcn  Elwiu  of  Burguudv  dcsircd  to  entrap  Martin,  Duke 
of  Austrasia,  two  bishops  were  sent  bearing  the  royal  reliquaries;  upon 
them  they  swore  that  his  life  should  be  safe.  But  the  relic  had  been 
removed  from  the  caskets,  hence  the  murder  of  the  Duke  was  held  to  be 
only  a  venial  sin."     About  680,  Theodore  was  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 

'  //«;«/<■/,  act.  v.,  sc.  2. 

'  Ducange,  Glossaiy,  "Crux"  ;  Maitland,  Dark  Ages,  p.  14. 

'  Fleiiry,  Hccla.  Hist.,  lib.  51,  sec.  45.  Fleiiry  reverently  says  lie  trembled  while  recording 
the  fact. 

^  Archaologia,  vol.  x.,  pp.  232,  234.  So  in  the  charter  of  King  Eadred,  Wulfstan,  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  uses  the  words,  "  Sigitlum  Sanctisdinw  Crucis  impressi,"  meaning,  not  the 
impression  in  w.ix,  but  the  sign  in  ink,     Ilnd. 

'  Lea,  Superstition  and  Force,  p.  23. 


The  Sign  of  the  Cross  435 

whose  Penitential  is  one  of  the  oldest  that  has  reached  us,  and  this  ven- 
erable code  of  morality  assumes  that  a  perjury  committed  on  a  conse- 
crated cross,  requires  for  absolution  three  times  the  penance  needful  in 
cases  in  which  the  oath  had  been  administered  on  an  unconsecrated  one.' 

When  Andronicus  II.  of  Constantinople,  in  1333,  resit,nied  in  fa\'or  of 
his  grandson  Andronicus  III.,  he  pledged  himself  never  to  reassume  his 
power.  He  was  blind  through  infirmity,  and  for  that,  or  some  other 
reason,  used  the  sign  of  the  Cross.  In  his  double  capacity  Double  Crosses 
as  Emperor  and  monk,   he   made  a  red  cross  for  the   fiist  nities. 

dignity,  and  a  black  one  for  the  second." 

Among  the  ancient  forms  of  conveyance  in  England  was  that  by  the 
gift  of  a  knife,  chalice,  ring,  walking  staiT,  or  a  cross.  William  de  Albini, 
on  founding  the  Priorv  of  Wymondham  in   Norfolk,  gave 

Gift  of  a  Cross 

the  whole  town  of   Happisburgh,   confirming  the  grant  at       in  conveying 

Property. 

the  burial  of  his  wife,  Maud,  by  delivering  a  reliquary  cross 

of  silver. '■     King  Edgar  confirmed  a  grant  to  a  monastery  by   cutting 

asunder  a  crosier  of  ivory  and  gold,  and  depositing  it  upon  the  altar. 

Many  of  the  Puritans  ^\-ho  had  occasion  to  "  make  their  mark"  in 
consequence  of  their"  iti'iiorance  of  letters,"  were  scrupu- 

'  ^  '  Puritan  Mal- 

lous  in  making  the  sign  in  a  defective  manner,  thus,  I—,  or         formation  of 

,  the  Cross. 

T ,  to  show  their  abhorrence  of  popery.' 

Section  9.  In  Touching  for  the  King's  Evil. — French  and  Eng- 
lish medieval  historians  claim  for  their  respective  sovereigns  the 
supernatural     power    of    healing    scrofula    by    the    touch.  its  Origin. 

Thomas  Aquinas  asserts  that    Clovis    I.,    -A..D.    481,'  was   the    first   that 

'  Thcodori  Caiiluar  Panit.,  cap.  xxiv.,  sec.  2,  quoted  in  Lea,  Superstition  and  Force,  ]i.  23. 
Theodore  also  ordered  that  if  the  ministration  of  a  priest  had  not  been  employed,  the  oath  was 
void  and  no  penalty  was  to  be  inflicted  for  its  violation. 

^  Doran,  Monarchs  Retired  from  Business,  vol.  ii.,  p.  SS. 

^  Archaologia,  vol.  xvii.,  p.  317.  Many  of  the  tenures  of  property  in  England  are  depend- 
ent upon  the  performance  of  ceremonies  which  appear  strange  in  this  age,  but  conveyed  their 
lesson  in  ruder  yet  more  pious  times.  At  Caistor,  on  Palm  Sunday,  a  man  holds  over  the  priest's 
head  a  whip  with  a  leathern  purse  at  the  end  containing  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  signifying  the 
price  of  blood  paid  to  Judas,  and  four  pieces  of  witch-elm  tied  upon  the  Cross  to  typify  the  Gospel. 
During  the  reading  of  the  first  lesson  the  whip  is  cracked  three  times  in  the  porch  to  commem- 
orate .S.  Peter's  denial,  and  during  the  second  lesson  it  is  waved  thrice  over  the  head  of  the  reader 
in  honor  of  the  Holy  Trinity.  Upon  the  performance  of  this  ceremony  the  tenure  of  Hundon 
Manse  depends.     Walcott,  Sacred  Arcliaology,  "  Palm  Sunday." 

■*  Brady,  Claris  Calendaria,  vol.  i.,  p.  334. 

'  S.  Favoul,  Du  Pouvoir  que  les  Rois  de  France  ont  de  gue'rir  ces  Ecrouellcs,  1633. 


436  History  of  the  Cross 

exercised  this  miraculous  virtue.  So  also  does  Andrew  Favine,'  and 
Laurentius,"  first  physician  to  Henry  IV.  of  France.  The  last,  however, 
says  that  S.  Louis,  A.D.  814,  added  to  the  words  in  use  from  the  time  of 
Clovis,  "  The  King  toucheth  thee,  but  God  healeth  thee,"  the  sign  of 
^ ..  the  Cross.      Stow  savs  that  the   practice  originated  in  the 

Edward  the  '  ^  '=' 

Confessor.  kiuducssof  Edward  the  Confessor,  1041,  who  complied  with 

the  request  of  a  young  woman,  who  dreamed  that  she  was  healed  by  the 
laying  on  of  royal  hands.     The  King  bathed  the  tumors  with  warm  water 
till  they  broke  and  then  signed  the  Cross,  and  the  cure  was  effected  within 
a  week.     Some  antiquaries  think  that  tactual  healing  came  in 

Plantagenets  first      .    ,       ,        tti  i  r  i      i      ■ 

Cured  King's       witli  thc  Plantageuets  who  conhned  their  pretensions  to  cur- 
ing only  the  cramp,  and  that  the  Stuarts  were  the  first  who 

Elizabeth. 

claimed  to  heal  the  King's  Evil.'  Elizabeth  seldom  used 
the  ceremoii}-,  although  \\"illiam  Tooker,  a  doctor  of  Theology,  wrote  a 
work,  which  was  dedicated  to  the  Queen,  maintaining  the  sanitary 
power  of  the  royal  touch."  Laurentius  states  that  he  had  tried  to  see 
Tooker's  book,  but  in  vain.  He  had  heard  that  there  were  many  absurd 
things  in  it,  among  others,  that  the  French  kings  had  received  the  power 
of  healing  from  the  English,  etc.  The  contrary  was  maintained  by 
others,  who  asserted  that  the  sovereign  of  England  never  possessed  this 
power,  but  as  a  king  of  France,  who  ever  had  such  a  gift  from  God.  The 
kings  of  England  first  ventured  to  exercise  this  power  when  they,  up- 
wards of  two  centuries  and  a  half  ago,  had  possession  of  nearly  the  whole 

of  France,  and   when   IIenr\-  Yl.   was  crowned  at  Paris  as 

Henry  VI.  and        -,,.  .   _^  --.  , 

jamesi.  Claimed  King  of  Frauce,  December  17,   1431. 

the  Power.  -po  JaiTics  I.    the  cercmoiiy  of  healing  was  distasteful, 

Shakespeare's      ygj;  perhaps  in  Compliment  to  him  Shakespeare  inserted  the 

Compliment. 

passage  in  Macbctli : 

Alalcolin.  Comes  thc  king  forili,  I  pray  you  ? 

Doctor.      Ay,  sir  ;   there  are  a  crew  of  wretched  souls 
That  stay  his  cure  :  Iheir  malady  convinces 
The  great  assay  of  art  ;  but  at  his  touch — 

'  l'".ivine,    'I'lualre  of  Honoui\  vol.  i.,  ]>p.  153,  1623. 

-  Laurentius,  De  Miraliik  Sirunias  Saim?iiii  vi.  Salts  Gallia:  Re^ilieis  Cliristianissimis 
divinilus  coticessa,  Paris,  1609.  An  engraving  in  this  volume  represents  Henry  IV.  touching 
the  patients,  who  are  kneeling  in  the  open  air. 

•'  Cirose  and  Astle,  Aniiij.  Kfpcrtory,  vol.  iv.,  p.  320. 

^  It  was  entitled.  Charisma  sive  donum  sanctorious  seu  explicatis  totius  quccstionis  .  .  . 
dc  curalioiie  struma: ciii  Rcgcs  Angliir  rite  iiiaup-ati  divinilus  mcdicato  sunt,  etc.,  1597. 


The  Sign  of  the  Cross  437 

Such  sanctity  liath  heaven  given  his  hand — 
They  presently  amend. 

Macduff.     What  's  the  disease  lie  means  ? 

Malcolm.  "1"  is  called  the  evil  ; 

A  most  miraculous  wurk  in  this  good  king  : 
Whicli  often,  since  my  here  remain  in  England, 
I  have  seen  him  do.      How  he  solicits  heaven, 
Himself  best  knows  :  but  strangely-visited  people, 
All  swol'n  and  ulcerou.s,  pitiful  to  the  eye, 
The  mere  despair  of  surgery,  he  cures, 
Hanging  a  golden  stamp  about  their  necks, 
Put  on  with  holy  prayers  :  and  't  is  spoken 
To  the  succeeding  royalty  he  leaves 
The  healing  benediction. 

— Macbeth,  act.  iv.,  sc.  3. 

The  usurper  Cromwell  tried  to  exercise  this  royal  power,  ^ 

^  ^         ^  CromweM  Want- 

but    in   vain.'  ing  in  the  Miracu- 

lous Power. 

Advocates  for  the  divine  rights  of  kings  will  probably 
class  this  supernatural  power  among  them.  Certainly,  it  cannot  owe  its 
virtue  to  any  personal  holiness  in  the  royal  leech,  for  Charles  II.  ex- 
ceeded his  predecessors  in  the  number  of  his  patients.  During  the 
period  from  his  restoration  to  his  death,  he  touched  nearly  one  hundred 
thousand  persons,  and  the  royal  physician,  Dr.  Wiseman,  certifies  that 
nearly  all  were  cured  ";  and  in  ten  years  ^^6000  were  expended  in  "  touch 
pieces,"  or  medals.  Evelyn,  in  1684,  mentions  that  the  concourse  was 
so  great  on  one  occasion  that  si.x  or  seven  persons  were  crushed  to  death. 
In  the  same  year  Thomas  Mousewell  was  tried  for  high  treason  because 
he  spoke  with  contempt  of  the  pretensions  of  King  Charles  to  cure. 

William  III.  refused  to  touch,  and  when  solicited,  bade  his  charnber- 
lain  "  Give  the  poor  creatures  some  money  and  send  them  away."  Once 
lie  yielded  to  the  supplications  of  a  poor  wretch  and  laid  his  William  iii  Re- 
hand  upon  liini,  saying,  "  God  give  thee  better  health  and  fused  to  Touch, 
more  sense."     The  practice,  however,  was  not  laid  aside  even  as  late  as 

'  Forsyth,  Antiquarian' s  Portfolio,  vol.  ii.,  pp.  179,  iSi. 

^  A  public  record  was  kept  at  Whitehall.  The  actual  number  "  stroked"  was  92,107.  A^. 
A.  Kev.,  July,  1841,  p.  276.  J.  C.  Jeafferson,  Book  abotit  the  Clergy,  vol.  i.,  p.  164,  note. 
Tn  1662  a  proclamation  was  set  forth  "  For  the  better  ordering  of  those  who  repair  to  the  Court 
for  cure  of  the  disease  called  the  King's  Evil,  wherein  his  Majesty,  being  as  ready  and  willing 
to  relieve  the  necessities  and  diseases  of  his  good  subjects  by  his  sacred  touch,  which  shall  come 
for  care,  as  any  of  his  royal  predecessors,  in  which,  by  the  grace  and  blessing  of  God,  he  hath  in 
an  extraordinary  measure  had  good  success,"  etc. 


438  History  of  the  Cross 

the  time  of  Queen  Anne,  for    Dr.  Johnson  relates  that,  in   1712,  when 

he  was  three  years  old,   he  was   brought   before  her  Majesty,   and  the 

"  touch  piece  "  which  she  suspended  from  his  neck  is  said 

Queen  Anne 

Touched  Dr.        to  be  Still  preserved  in  the  British  Museum.'    There  also  may 

Johnson.  ,  .  ^  -  .  ■  i  i  i  , 

be  seen  the  nrst  form  01  service,  said  to  be  that  drawn  up 

in  the  time  of  Henry  \'II.      It  is  also  in  the  Books  of  Common  Pra\'er 

in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  Charles  II.,  James  11.,  and  Anne. 

Form  of  Service.      .  .  ... 

As  these  vary,  it  would  seem  that  a  new  form  was  com- 
posed for  each  sovereign.  The  Gospel  read  was  S.  Mark  x\'i.,  beginning 
at  verse  14.  At  the  words,  "  They  shall  lay  their  hands  on  the  sick,  and 
they  shall  recover,"  the  rubric  directs,  "  Here  the  infirm  persons  are  pre- 
sented to  the  King  on  their  knees,  and  the  King  lays  his  hand  upon 
them."  Instead  of  the  epistle,  another  Gospel  is  read,  S.  John  i.,  2,  and 
at  the  words,  "  that  light  was  the  true  light,"  they  are  again  presented, 
and  the  King  puts  about  their  necks  a  piece  of  gold,  or  a  medal  bearing 
S.  Michael.' 

The  times  appointed  were  from  the  Feast  of  All  Saints  to  a  week 
before  Christmas,  and  in  the  month  before  Easter;  but  they  were  not 
strictly  adhered  to,  for  there  were  quarterly,  monthl)-,  and  probably  other 
opportunities  afforded  the  sufferers  to  come  and  be  healed. 

Section  10.     Power  of  the  Sign  over  Devils. — It    is    recorded    of 

Julian  the  Apostate,  that  when  he  flung  aside  the  fear  of  the  true  God, 

he  sought  out  magicians,  but  being  frightened  at  the  si^ht 

Use  of  the  Sign 

by  Julian  the        of  the  devils  cvokcd,   the  Emperor  made  the  sign  of  the 
'^°^     ^'  Cross.     The  demons,  recognizing  the  sign  of  their  victor, 

and  acknowledging  its  power,  vanished ;  but  it  was  long  before  the 
flatteries  and  sophistry  of  the  magicians  calmed  the  agitation  and  fears 
of  Julian."  The  story  is  told  in  simple  faith  by  the  historian  of  the 
Church,  but  it  was  doubtless  long  before  his  day  that,  in  the  treatment 
of  demoniacs  in  the  early  Church,  praver  was  esteemed  of 

Sign  of  the  Cross 

Used  over  De-     great  cf^cacy  together  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross.    True,  as 


moniacs. 


Hagenbacli  remarks,  that  which  "  was  at  first  nothing  more 
than  a  symbol  of  the  power  of  faith  itself,  became  afterwards  a  mechani- 
cal opus  opcratuiit,"    but   not    such   was  the   opinion  of   S.   Cyril,   who 

'  Rye,  England  as  Seen  hy  Fori'igncrs,  p.  277. 

^  Kennel,  Register,  p.  731,  quoted  in  J/ierurgia  Anglicamr,  p.  203. 

'  Tlieodoret,  Eccles.  Hist.,  hk.  iii.,  clmp.  iii. 


The  Sign  of  the  Cross 


439 


S.  Cyril. 


S.  Gregory 
Nazianzen. 


ascribed  all  power  to  Christ,  not  to  the  Cross,'  "  since,"  he  says,  "  its 
grace  is  from  God,"  adding:  "  It  is  the  sign  of  the  faithful,  and  the 
dread  of  devils:  for  He  has  triumphed  over  them  in  it,  ha\ing 
made  a  show  of  them  openly;  for  when  they  see  the  Cross, 
they  are  reminded  of  the  Cruci- 
fied, they  are  afraid  of  Him  who 
hath  bruised  the  head  of  tlic 
dragon.  Despise  not  the  seal, 
because  of  the  freeness  of  the 
gift  ;  but  for  this  the  rather 
honor   thy    Benefactor."" 

Tradition  also  gives  the  power 
of  casting  out  demons  by  this 
sign  to  S.  Gregory 
Nazianzen,^  and 
L' Estrange  quotes  an  instance 
of  a  woman  who  was  preserved 
from  poison,  being  "  helped  by 
the  sign  of  the  Cross,  and  faith 
in  the  Cross,  not  by  either  sepa- 
rately, but  by  both  together."'' 
S.    Athanasius    ex- 

S.  Athanasius. 

horts,  "  In  the  midst 

of  the  incantation  of  devils,  let 

only  the    sign   of   the  Cross,   which   the  Gentiles  ridicule,   be    used  ;  let 

Christ  be  merely  named,  and  the  de\'ils  will  instantly  be  put  to  flight,  the 

oracles  be  silent,  and  all  the  arts  of  magic  be  reduced  to  nothing."  ' 

Lactantius  declares,  "As  Christ  \\-hil-^t  he  lived  among  men  put  devils 
to  flight  by  His  word,  restored  those  to  their  right  mind  whom  these 
evil  spirits  possessed,  so  now  his  followers,  in  the  name  of 
their  Master,  and  by  the  sign  of  His  Passion,  exercise  the 
same  dominion  over  them.      The  proof  is  evident :  when  the  idolaters 

'  Hagenbach,  History  of  Doctrines,  vnl.  i.,  p.  150.  "The  poem  of  Severus,  Sanctiis  En- 
delechitts,  de  mortibits  I'onitnt,  contains  a  lively  description  of  the  supernatural  efficacy  of  the  sign 
of  the  Cross  against  demoniacal  influences,  even  in  references  to  the  animal  kingdom."  Ibid.^ 
p.  375.  '-'  Cyril,  Catcclittical  Lectures,  xiii.,  39,  p.  162. 

'  Fleury,  Ecclcs.  Hist.,  p.  57S,  xiii.,  ix. 

^  L'Estrange,  Alliance,  p.  372. 

'  S.  Athanasius,  quoted  in  Haslam,   The  Cross  and  tite  Serpent,  p.  210. 


I'ower  of  the  Cross  over  Devils. 
From  Holland's  Cruciana. 


Lactantius. 


44°  History  of  the  Cross 

sacrifice  to  their  gods,  they  cannot  proceed  if  a  Christian,  being  present, 
make  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  nor  can  the  diviner  give  his  responses.  This 
often  has  been  the  cause  of  persecutions  which  we  have  undergone."  ' 

The  ancient  Church  in  her  form  of  Exorcism  in  the  Office  of  Baptism 

recognized  the  power  of  the  sign  over  the  deviL     The  Uturgies  of  the 

Eastern  Church  still  remind  us  of  this  :  ex.  gr.,  in  that  of 

Exorcism  with 

the  Sign  of  the      Constantinople,  Satan  is  bid  to  "  Depart,  and  retreat  from 
this  newly  chosen,  and  cross  signed,   soldier  of  Christ  our 
God."  = 

'  Lactantiiis,  quoted  in  Haslam,   The  Cross  and  the  Sefpent,  p.  210. 

'^  iS'eale,  Hist,  of  tlie  Eastern  Church,  Introduction,  p.  Q59.  The  Northern  mythological 
traditions  abound  in  tales  of  the  belief  of  the  simple  people  in  the  power  of  the  Cross  ever  over 
the  beings  which  they  believed  were  intermediate  between  the  supernatural  world  and  ours. 
There  is  not  room  to  introduce  such  stories  in  the  text,  besides,  such  mere  superstition  ought  not 
to  be  brought  in  connection  with  the  earnest  faith  of  our  forefathers.  As  a  specimen  we  quote 
the  following  Danish  tradition.  Even  the  elfish  world  is  fettered  by  the  Cross,  if  only  accident- 
ally made.  Near  Arnhuus,  in  Denmark,  as  a  smith  was  going  to  church,  he  saw  a  Troll  sitting 
on  a  heap  of  coals  by  the  wayside,  and  busied  with  two  straws  which  by  chance  had  fallen  across 
the  heap.  The  Troll  begged  the  smith  to  take  them  away,  but  he,  suspecting  the  truth  of  the 
case,  took  possession,  jiaying  no  attention  to  the  outcries  of  the  poor  little  defrauded  elf.  Of 
course,  when  he  reached  home,  the  dishonest  Christian  was  rewarded  with  a  heap  of  treasure  in- 
stead of  cinders.  Trolls  cannot  pronounce  the  word  Cross,  but  call  it  "here  and  there." 
Thorpe,  Northern  Mythology,  pp.  152,  275. 


CHAPTER  X 

PURITAN   OPPOSITION   TO   THE   CROSS 

MORE   ill   sorrow  than   in   anger,"    is   tliis   part    of   the    subject 
treated.     Yet  the  history  of  the  Cross,  without  it,  would  be 
incomplete.      Like  many  errors  recorded  in   the  history  of 

Character  of 

Christianity,  this  arose  from  men's  being  "  righteous  over  Opponents  of  the 

Cross. 

much,"  the  opponents  of  the  Cross  being  among  those  who 
in  all  ages  of  the  Church  have  claimed  to  be  more  holy,  more  pure,  than 
their  fellow-Christians;  hence  we  are  compelled  for  the  sake  of  truth  and 
uniformity  to  class  all  objectors  to  the  use  of  the  Cross  under  the  title 
adopted  by  their  later  followers  as  Puritans. 

It  is  not  worth  while  noting  all  the  sects  who  have  erred  in  this  mat- 
ter; most  of  them  are  now  forgotten,  but  it  is  significant  that  those 
especially  distinguished  for  their  opposition  in  the  seventh,  tenth,  and 
twelfth  centuries,  were  doctrinal  descendants  of  the  Manichasans,  hence 
it  is  not  surprising  that  those  who  were  heretical  in  their  belief  in  the 
blessed  Saviour  Himself,  should  despise  His  Cross.      Prob- 

Ascodrutes,  the 

ably  the  first  who  rejected  the  Cross  were  the  Ascodrutes,  First  who  Reject- 

.  .  ed  the  Cross. 

an  obscure  sect  oi  heretics  m  the  second  century,  who  re- 
jected sacraments  and  symbols  under  the  pretence  of  a  purely  spiritual 
religion,  and  held  that  perfect  knowledge  was  their  redemption.' 

In  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  arose  the  sect  of  the  Paulicians, 
who  amongst  other  errors,  held  that  the  Creator  of  the  World  was  not 
the  Supreme  God;  that  the  soul  of  man,  "  originally  viith  Century- 
wedded  to  Divinity  itself,  had  been  seduced  into  union  "'^  Pauiicians. 
with  the  body  where  she  dwelt  in  doleful  prison."  Her  deliverance  was 
the  work  of  the  Redeemer,  who  brought  His  body  from  Heaven,  hence 

'  Bingham,  Anliqiiitics^  bk.  xi.,  chap,  ii.,  sec.  i. 
441 


442  History  of  the  Cross 

His  suffering  and  Passion  were  only  in  appearance,  and  they  loaded  the 
Cross  with  contumely,  considering  it  only  a  sign  of  malediction.  Yet 
some  of  them  made  use  of  a  wooden  cross  with  superstitious  intent. 
They  also  held  that  Baptism  was  only  of  the  spirit,  and  rejected  the 
Lord's  Supper  and  the  Old  Testament.' 

Passing  over  the  intervening  time  we  find  that  by  the  ninth  century 

the  ceremonies  of  the  Church  had  greatly  increased.     Then  Claudius, 

Bishop  of  Turin  from  821  to  839,  in  his  zeal  for  reformation, 

IXth  Century. 

excluded  from  the  churches  all  symbols,  whether  pictures, 
images,  or  crosses,  which  could  possibh'  give  rise  to  adoration.'' 

About  a  hundred  years  before,  Leo  the  Isaurian,  influenced,  it  is 
said,  by  the  invectives  of  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  had  proscribed 
all  images  and  pictures,  with  the  sole  exception  of  the  Cross.  He  even 
erected  one  in  his  own  palace  in  place  of  a  figure  of  our  Lord  which  he 
removed.^ 

In  the  eleventh  century  there  lived  one  Gundulf,   who  denied  the 

cross  to  be  more  holy  than  any  other  wood,  and  refused  it  any  honor. 

His  followers  treated   churches    with    irre\'erence,    rejected 

Xlth  Century. 

altars,  hol\-  sacraments,  and  hol_\-  orders,  and  would  not 
tolerate  bells  or  chanting.'  In  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  century  a 
Bogomiies.  scct  arosc  in  Bulgaria,  known  as  the  Bogomiles,  or  the  Mas- 

xiith  Century.  siHaus.  The  leading  tenets  are  given  to  show  in  what  cate- 
gory to  class  the  haters  of  the  Cross.  Their  theological  system,  which 
was  quasi-dualistic,  centred,  so  to  speak,  in  the  person  of  a  superhuman 
being,  the  first-born  Son  of  God,  holding  a  second  place  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  world,  a  distorted  image  of  the  Prince  of  Evil  called  Sataneal. 
He  seduced  the  mother  of  the  human  race,  and  became  the  father  of 
Cain.      He  also  deluded   Moses,  and   through   him   the  Jews,  hence  the 

'  Ilardwiuk,  //is/,  of  the  Christian  Church  in  the  A/iddle  Ages,  p.  80;  Mosheim,  iii.,  ix., 
ii.,  V. 

'^  Ilardvvick,  //ist.  of  the  Christ.  Chtirclt  in  the  .^/iM/e  Ages,  j>.  170.  The  iconoclastic 
controversy  was  commenced  by  I'hilippicus  Bardanes,  Emperor  of  [lie  Greeks,  A.D.  712.  Mos- 
heim, iii.,  viii.,  ii.,  iii.,  g.  Although  Leo,  from  the  prominence  of  the  controversy  in  his  time, 
is  generally  considered  as  its  originator.  Four  centuries  before,  Epiphanius,  Bishop  of  Con- 
stantia  in  Cyprus,  when  passing  through  Anablatha,  a  village  in  I'alestine.  tore  down  a  veil  on 
which  was  painted  a  figure  of  Christ,  or  some  saint,  he  did  not  recollect  which,  and  bade  the 
guardians  of  the  church  to  make  a  shroud  of  it  for  some  poor  man.  Bingham,  Antiquities, 
bk.  viii.,  chap,  viii.,  sec.  6. 

'  Hardwick,  //ist.  of  the  Christ.  Church,  etc.,  p.  78. 

*  Mosheim,  iii.,  xi.,  ii.,  v.,  4.  Tlieir  doctrines  resembled  those  revived  by  the  modern 
Quakers. 


Puritan  Opposition  to  the  Cross 


443 


Bogomilcs  had  no  reverence  for  the  Pentateuch.  Their  views  of  the 
second  and  third  Persons  of  the  Holy  Trinity  were  heretical. 

They  considered  the  Church  as  anti-Christian,  and  as  ruled  by  fallen 
angels,  and  that  none  save  those  who  professed  their  own  creed  and 
communion  could  attain  salvation  as  true  followers  of  Christ.  Hating 
the  Mosaic  code  and  ritual,  they  of  course  despised  the  ceremonies  of 
the  Church,  and  rejected  Baptism,  save  that  which  they  pretended  to  be 
of  the  Hol\'  Ghost.  They  refused  the  title  of  Tlicoiakos  to  the  blessed 
Virgin,  assuming  the  ground  that  it  proper!}-  belonged  to  every  holy 
soul,  and  not  peculiarly  to  her  who,  they  say,  was  unconscious  even  of 
the  Saviour's  birth;  they  abhorred  the  symbol  of  the  Cross,  and  held  in 
high  admiration  Constantine  Copronymus,  whose  impiety  and  cruelty 
were  only  equalled  by  his  hatred  of  art,  and  his  support  of  the  Icono- 
clasts.' 

The  Western  sects  of  Bulgri,  Cathari  (/.  c,  pure),  Boni  Homines  (good 
men),  and  Albigenses  stood  in  relations,  more  or  less  immediate,  with  the 
Bogomiles,  and  holding  certain  points  in  common  with  sects  in  xiith 
Paulianus  and  the  Manichreans  proper,  among  others  that  century, 

of  hating  the  Cross.  The  Petrobrusiani  appear  to  have  been  of  a  better 
character.  They  confessed  the  main  truths  of  Christianity,  and  sought 
to  raise  the  tone  of  morals,  yet  they  rejected  Infant  Baptism,  under- 
valued the  Eucharist,  denounced  Church  music  and  ritual,  and  burned 
the  crosses." 

Of  course  the  Cross  could  not  escape  the  ill-directed  zeal  of  the 
Reformation.  Luther  himself  saw  no  evil  in  the  Cross.  In  his  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible,  pub-    ,„.>,.,■=  tt=»  „f 

^  Luther  s  Use  ot 

lished  in   1524,  there  is  the  cross. 

a  cross  with  an  angel  adoring  it.     On 

the  title-page  of  his  works  edited  by 

Melanchthon,  Luther  is  represented 

on  his  knees  before  a  crucifix.      His 

adopted   coat    of   arms  was   a   cross 

upon  a  heart  upon  a  rose  ;  the  holiest 

of  symbols  and  the  most  beautiful  of  flowers  enshrined  in  the  human 

sanctuary.     And  the  ring  with  which  he  wedded  Catharine  Bora  (or  de 


Medal  of  Luther. 
From  Gretser's  De  Sancta  Criice. 


'  Hardwick,  Hist,  of  the  Christ.  Church,  etc.,  p.  306. 
«  Ibid.,  p.  310. 


444 


History  of  the  Cross 


Boren)  was  adorned  with  a  crucifix  and  the  instruments  of  our  Lord's 
Passion.  He  rebuked  Carlstadt's  intemperate  zeal  in  demoHshing  altars 
and  crucifixes.     And  yet   to  the    fanaticism  of  those  who  claim   to  be 

his  followers  we  owe 


much  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  crosses,  way- 
side and  sanctuary, 
churchyard,  mem- 
orial, and  altar,  and 
even  the  precious 
gems  of  manuscript 
art. 

It  was  reserved. 
Coat  of  Anns  of  Melanchthon.  however,  for  the  Pu- 
ritans in  England  to 
"out-Herod  Herod  "  in  impiety  and  sacrilege.  In  the  time  of  King 
„    ..  Tames  they  objected  to  the  use  of  the  sign  of  the  Cross  in 

Puritans  m  •>  -^  ■>  fc» 

England.  Holy   Baptism.     Yet   at   the   Hampton   Court  Conference, 

Dr.  Reynolds,  one  of  their  chiefest  representatives,  overcome  by  argu- 
ments for  its  anticjuity  and  fitness,  acknowledged  that  he  would  never- 
more gainsay  the  ceremony.' 

The  English  reformers  were  in  correspondence  with  the  Continental, 
and  Bucer  confessed  that  he  could  find  nothing  indecent  in  the  sign  of 
the  Cross  in  Baptism  "if  it  were  used  with  a  pure  mind." 
He  disapproved  of  directing  the  form  that  was  used  in  im- 
posing it  on  the  child   itself,  who  could   not  understand  it.      P""or  which 


Coat  of  Arms  of  Luther. 

From  Gretser's  Df  Sancta  Ciiice. 


Bucer's  Opinion. 


'  L'Estrange,  AlliaiKc,  p.  373.  Although  everyone  knows  what  were  the  things  objected 
to  by  the  Puritans,  still  it  is  well,  in  this  country  where  they  are,  if  not  literally  canonized,  yet 
worshipped  as  saints,  to  rehearse  a  few  of  them.  They  objected  to  kneeling  at  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, to  bowing  at  the  name  of  Jesus,  to  the  observance  of  saints'  days  and  of  Lent,  to  the  use  of 
sponsors  at  baptism,  unless  the  parents  were  dead  or  in  a  distant  country ;  to  the  answers  of 
sponsors  in  the  name  of  the  child  instead  of  their  own  ;  to  the  use  of  the  surplice,  of  the  ring  in 
marriage  ;  to  the  churching  of  women,  the  frequency  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  etc.  Some  objected 
to  the  Lord's  Prayer  because  it  was  fewish.  True,  every  word  is  from  Jewish  liturgies  ;  see 
authorities  elsewhere.  These  are  only  some  of  the  ghosts  of  stumbling-blocks  conjured  up  by 
the  Puritans.  As  a  slight  specimen  of  "Puritan  Insolence"  (the  words  are  Sinithey's,  not 
ours)  we  quote  the  following:  "  i62f).  The  Lady  Laurence,  for  turning  up  the  buttocks  of  a 
child  at  the  font,  when  the  Plaintiff  would  and  should  have  signed  it  with  the  sign  of  the  Cross, 
which  was  proved,  but  not  charged  by  the  Bill,  was  recommended  to  the  High  Commission 
Court." — Rushworth,  part  ii.,  vol.  ii.,  appendi.x,  p.  27  ;  ([uoled  in  Southey,  Common  Place  Book, 
ser.  i.,  p.  21. 


Puritan  Opposition  to  the  Cross  445 

reason  lie  wishcil  it  niiyht  be  turned  into  a  jirayer.  "In  ni\'  opinion," 
saith  he,  "  the  use  of  it  is  neitiier  unseemly  nor  unprofitable."  ' 

But  what  \veiL;ht  the  objections  of  the  Continental  reformers  had 
upon  the  British,  we  can  judge  from  the  following: 

In  1559,  Bishop  Cox  writes  to  Peter  Martyr:  "  Respecting  our  affairs 
what  shall  I  write  ?  All  those  heads  of  religion  are  restored  to  us  whicli 
we  maintained  in  the  time  of  Kin<j  Edward.      We  are  only        „.  .      _    , 

o  J  Bishop  Cox  s 

constrained    to   great    distress   of    mind    to    tolerate    in    our  Opposition, 

churches  the  image"  of  Him,  who  was  crucified.  The  Lord  must  be 
entreated  that  this  stumbling-block  may  be  removed." 

Again  in  the  same  year  Bisho])  Jewell,  a  holy  man  whose  amiability 
led  him  to  look  too  kindly   on  the  Puritans,  writes  to  the 

Bishop  Jewell. 

same  Peter  Martyr:  "  That  little  silver  cross'  of  ill-omened 

origin,     still    maintains    itself    in    the    Queen's    [Elizabeth's]    Chapel. 

Wretched  me!  this  thing  will  soon  be  drawn  into   a  pre-  ,.,„.=  in  n„.,n'. 

o  1  Cross  in  Queen  s 

cedent.     There   was   at  one  time  some  hope   of   its   being  chapei. 

removed,  and  we  all  of  us  diligently  exerted  ourselves  and  still  continue 
that  it  might  be  so.  But  as  far  as  I  can  perceive,  it  is  now  a  hopeless 
case."  * 

During  the  next  eleven  years  the  Cross  was  several  times  removed 
from,  and  restored  to,  this  altar.' 

Archbishop   Laud  placed  a  cross  upon  the  altar  of  Westminster,  at 

the  coronation  of  Charles  I.,  1625.      When  that  was  removed,  we  know 

not.      Its  fate  may  be  judged  from  that  placed  years  before  upon  the 

altar  at  Whitehall,   which  was  at  last  broken  by  Pach,  the  court  fool, 

when  no  wiser  man,"  says  Heylin,  "  could  be  got  to  do  it."  ° 

No  country  has  shown  its  enmity  to  the  Cross  more  persistently  than 
Scotland.  In  May,  1559,  ''^'''  attack  was  made  by  a  Protestant  mob 
against  a  Carthusian  monastery  in  Perth,  during  which  a  Aversion  to  the 
large  cross  was  torn  up,  and  used  as  a  battering-ram  against  cross m  Scotland. 
the  gates.'     The  same  spirit  was  shown  in  1850,  when  a  building  com- 

'  Bucer,  Optis  aug.,  p.  479  ;  Wheatley  on  Common  Prayer,  chap,  vii.,  sec.  i,  p.  iii. 
'  Zurich  Letters,  ist  ser.,  xxviii.,  p.  66. 

'  It  was  not  simply  a  cross,  but  a  crucifix,  and  was  objected  to  by  Archbishop  Parker. 
Life  of  Parker,  p.  49. 

^Zurich  Letters,  1st  ser.,  xxiv.,  p.  55. 

'  See  Appendix  for  account  of  dispute  of  Parker  and  Cox,  and  Grindal  and  Jewell. 

'  Heylin,  Life  of  Archbishop  Laitd,  p.  14  (ed.  163S). 

''  Lawson,  Hist,  of  the  /Reformation,  p.  195. 


446  History  of  the  Cross 

mittee  to  whom  was  entrusted  the  care  of  erecting  a  place  of  worship  as 
a  memorial  of  John  Knox,  objected  to  the  plan  presented  because  a  cross 
appeared ;  which  symbol,  they  said,  the  pious  reformer  would  have 
abhorred. 

To  illustrate  the  bitter  hatred  of  the  Puritans  to  the  Church,  and 
everything  tending  to  glorify  and  symbolize  the  divine  truths  of  her 
worship,  would  carry  us  beyond  our  limits.  A  few  specimens  will  suffice, 
and  we  have  not  patience  to  give  more. 

William  Dowsing  of  Stratford  was  Parliamentary  visitor  appointed, 
under  a  warrant  from  the  Earl  of  Manchester,  to  demolish  the  super- 
stitious pictures  and   ornaments  of  churches,   etc.,   within 

Extracts  from 

William  Dow-  the  county  of  Suffolk  in  the  years  1643-1644.  Selecting  at 
smg  s  ourna  .  j-g,-,|jQ,-,-|  from  ovcr  onc  hundred  and  fifty  instances  in  his 
journal,  we  read  :  "  At  Clare  the  6th  We  brake  down  one  thousand 
pictures  superstitious;  I  brake  down  two  hundred;  three  of  God  the 
Father,  and  three  of  Christ,  and  the  Holy  Lamb;  and  three  of  the  Holy 
Ghost  like  a  dove  with  wings;  and  the  twelve  apostles  were  carved  in 
wood  on  the  top  of  the  roof,  which  we  gave  order  to  take  down ;  and 
twenty  cherubims  to  be  taken  down,  and  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  east 
window  by  the  king's  arms,  to  be  taken  down. 

"  Barham  Jan  the  22nd.  We  brake  down  the  twelve  apostles  in  the 
chancel,  and  six  superstitious  more  there;  and  eight  in  the  church,  one 
a  lamb  with  a  cross  X  on  the  back;  and  digged  down  the  steps  ;  and 
took  up  four  superstitious  inscriptions  of  brass  one  of  them  ycsn,  Fill, 
Dei,  miserere  nici,  and  O  mater  Dei,  memento  mei,  '  O  mother  of  God, 
have  mercy  on  me  1 

Copdock  _'9th.  I  brake  down  one  hundred  and  fifty  superstitious 
pictures;  two  of  God  the  Father,  and  two  crucifi.xes;  did  deface  a  cross 
on  the  font,  and  gave  order  to  take  down  a  stoneing  cross  on  the  chancel, 
and  to  levell  the  steps;  and  took  up  a  brass  inscription,  with  ora pro  nobis 
and  eujiis  animce  propitietur  Dens. 

"  WooljMt  Feb  2gth.  My  Deputy.  Eight)-  superstitious  pictures; 
some  he  brake  down,  and  the  rest  he  gave  order  to  take  down;  and  eight 
crosses  to  be  taken  down  in  twenty  days. 

"  Beccles,  April  5th.  He  destroyed  by  the  altar,  "  My  meat  is  flesh 
indeed,  and  my  blood  is  drink  indeed,"  and  thirteen  crosses  in  all,  and 
Jesus  and  Mary  in  letters  and  the  twelve  apostles. 


Puritan  Opposition  to  the  Cross  447 

"  Ofton  Aug.  22nd.  There  was  a  holy  water  font  in  the  chancel,  and 
the  steps,  and  some  crosses  on  the  outside  of  the  church  and  chancel; 
and  we  gave  order  to  deface  them.  We  gave  order  to  have  them  all  de- 
faced, and  two  more  in  a  window  of  the  church,  and  two  stone  crosses 
on  the  top  of  the  steeple:  all  which  we  gave  order  to  mend  all  the  de- 
faults by  Saturday  come  se'nnight.      At  Ipswich  at  Mr.  Coley's. " 

The  very  name  of  jESUS  as  well  as  His  symbol  was  an  offence  unto 
them,  for  at  Benacre,  April  the  6th,  among  other  superstitious  things 
"  eighteen  JESUSES  written  in  capital  letters  on  the  roof  "  The  Name  of 
were  ordered  to  be  defaced.  On  the  same  day  at  Cochic,  J^^"^  Destroyed. 
"  There  were  many  inscriptions  of  JESU.S  in  capital  lettt:rs  on  the  roof  of 
the  church,  and  cherubims,  with  crosses  on  their  breasts,  and  a  cross  in 
the  chancel,  all  which  with  divers  pictures  in  the  windows,  which  we 
could  not  reach,  neither  would  they  help  us  raise  the  ladders,  all  which 
we  left  a  warrant  with  the  constable  to  do  in  fourteen  days." 

Upford,  January  27th,  was  visited,  and  thirty  superstitious  pictures 
and  six  brasses  were  broken  and  directions  given  that  thirt}'-seven  more 
and  fort}'  cherubim  were  to  be  destroyed.  On  August  31st,  the  vandals 
again  visited  the  church,  and  described  in  pitiable  words  the  misery  they 
suffered  by  the  perverse  churchwardens,  who  would  not  find  the  key  and 
kept  them  two  hours  waiting.  But  Puritan  patience  was  rewarded; 
twelve  more  cherubim  and  abo\"c  a  hundred  representations  of  Jesus  and 
Mary,  and  a  crosier  stafT  in  glass,  and  a  font  cover,  which  these  barbarians 
described  as"  glorious,"  with  a  pelican  picking  its  breast  on  the  top, 
"  all  gilt  with  gold,"  were  destroyed,  besides  an  angel  and  the  Trinity. 
The  organ  case  was  broken  and  given  to  the  poor. 

No  opportunity  for  showing  their  hatred  of  the  sacred  symbol  was 
ever  allowed  to  pass  unimproved  by  the  Puritans,  as  ma\'  be  seen  in  the 
literature  of  the  time. 

The  Cross  was  formerly  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  cross  in  Horn- 
horn-books,  hence  the  line  of  alphabet  was  called  Christ's  Books. 
Cross  row. 

"  The  very  children  ere  they  scarce  can  say 
Their /<7i'tv-  iioster,  or  their  Christ's  Cross  A,"' 

were  taught   to  speak  of  it   as  a  spot.      Sir  John   Birkenhead   likewise 
banters  these   Precisians.     "  An   act    for  removing  the   alphabet   Cross 

'  Poem  in  Praise  of  Sack,  Tatham  Francis  Theatre,  1640. 


448  History  of  the  Cross 

from  the  children's  primer,  and  the  Cross  from  off  the  Speaker's  Mace, 

and  for  adding  S.  Andrew's  cross  to  S.  George's  in  the  State's  Arms." 

Again,    "  Resolved,  etc.,   that  all  crosses  were  due  to  the 

Objections  Ridi- 
culed by  Birken-   state,   and    therefore   all  coin  that   is  stamped   with   super- 
stitious kind  of  idolatry  is  confiscated  by  modern  laws  to 
the  devil's  melting  pans."  ' 

Richard  Flecknoe,  in  his  Enigiiiatical  Cltaractcrs,^  speaking  of  "  your 
fanatick  reformers,"  says,  "  Had  they  their  wills,  a  bird  would  not  fly  in 
the  air,  with  its  v.ings  across,  a  ship  with  its  cross-yard  9<m\  upon  the  sea, 
nor  prophane  taylor  sit  cross-legged  on  his  shop-board,  or  have  cross- 
buttons  to  wind  his  thread  upon."     Again  he  gives  us  the  following: 

On  Fanaticks  or  Cross  Haters. 

"Who  will  not  be  baptized,  onely  because 
In  Baptism  they  make  the  sign  o'  th'  Cross, 
Shewing,  the  whilst,  how  well  the  Devil  and  he, 
In  loving  of  the  signe  o'  th'  Cross,  agree. 
Seeing  how  every  one  in  swimming  does 
Stretch  forth  their  arms,  and  make  the  sign  o'  th'  Cross, 
Were  he  to  swim,  rather  than  make  (I  think) 
The  signe  o'  th'  Cross,  he  'd  sooner  chuse  to  sink." 

These  foolish  whims  are  still  further  exhibited  by  Dr.  Grey,  the 
worthy  annotator  of  Hudibras.  He  quotes  from  several  works  of  the 
time.'  The  hypocritical  preciseness  of  those  times  is  humorously  enough 
bantered  by  an  anonymous  writer  or  two,  who  were  contemporary.  The 
first  is  a  dialogue  between  the  Cross  in  Cheap  and  Charing  Cross. 
Cheap.  I  must  tell  you  sister,  I  am  accused  for  a  Papist,  and  not 
thought  fit  to  have  any  abiding  in  the  Heart  of  the  City;  I  am  called 
and  preached  against  by  the  name  of  the  City  Idol.  The  Broivnists  spit 
at  me  as  they  come  along ;  the  Faiiiilists  hide  their  eyes  with  their  fingers, 
the  Anabaptists  wishes  me  knocked  in  a  thousand  Pieces.  The  Sisters 
of  the  l'~raternit\'  will  not  come  near  me,  but  get  about  by  walling  street, 
and  come  in  again  by  Botv  Lane,  to  buy  their  Markets  of  the  Country 
Women.     They  so  extremely  hate  the  cross,  that  thev  hate  everything 

'  Grey's  Notes  lo  Ihiilibras  on  liis  famous  lines, 

"  .\n&  some  against  all  idolizing 
The  Cross  in  shop-books,  or  baptizing." 

Pt.  iii.,  canto  2,  bk.  315. 
'  8vo,  London,  16&5,  p.  S3, 
'  Grey,  Examination  of  the  third  vol.  of  Neal's  History  0/  the  Puiilans   pp.  80-S2. 


Puritan  Opposition  to  the  Cross  449 

that  makcth  a  sliow  or  carricth  the  resemblance  of  a  cross.  This  last 
Week  a  Broker's  wife  of  Houndditch  beat  her  Maid  pitifully  for  laying, 
as  she  made  her  master's  Bed,  by  chance,  two  bed-staves  across.  And 
another,  a  Parish  Clark,  a  [jetty  School-master,  would  not  suffer  a 
Christ' s-Cross  in  any  Hornbook,  but  cut  them  all  out,  and  rubbed  over 
the  place  with  Chalk  and  Butter." 

Again  (p.  5),  "  Some  think  it  very  fit  that  we  and  our  Children  should 
be  again  baptized  because  we  were  signed  with  the  Sign  of  the  Cross. 

There  is  one  Cross  in  London,  a  very  honest  man  a  Taylor,  who 
very  much  fears  that  he  must  change  his  Name,  and  so  make  himself  no 
better  than  a  Rogue  by  the  Statute. 

Two  Brozvnists  as  they  came  along,  were  overheard  by  the  Drawer 
at  the  Three  Tuns  to  affirm,  that  the  very  name  of  Cross  ought  utterly 
to  be  abolished,  and  not  so  much  as  to  be  named  in  or  about  any  Thing. 
As  if  your  Maid  be  bid  to  mend  the  fire,  you  must  not  say  to  her  Lay 
those  Sticks  across,  nor  may  a  Dancer  once  name  a  Cross  caper,  nor  if  any 
misfortune  befal  you,  must  you  say,  I  am  crossed  in  mind,  nor  must  a 
Tradesman  sa}'  to  his  Prentice,  Cross  the  Book,  nor  must  a  Country 
Taylor  be  said  to  sit  cross-legged,  but  Andreiv  zvise,  nor  must  say  I  will 
cross  the  street,  but  overthwart  it.''  ' 

And  another  about  the  same  time  says,  "  If  we  break  down  sorry  half 
headed  Croslets,  in  our  Church-Yards  and  Migh-ways,  for  fear  of  the 
worst,  with  \\liat  courage  should  we  (with  the  valiant  and  zealous  Don 
Quixote)  set  upon  these  Giantly  Champions  of  superstition  ?  Since  we 
may  boldly  say.  That  no  old  Piuinier  or  Horn  Book,  no  Book  of  Popish 
Massing  or  Conjuring,  hath  in  it  a  more  exact  Form  of  that  great  Idol 
than  the  common  Windmill  hath. 

Well  fare  a  good  sister  of  ours  who  would  not  suffer  the  little  ones 
to  name  that  Idol  in  her  first  lesson,  but  taught  them  to  say  Black  Spot, 

'  In  a  merry  pamphlet,  entitled,  New  Ordios  JVcw,  agreed  upon  by  tlie  Parliament  of 
Roundheads,  conjii-iiied  by  the  Brethren  of  the  new  Separation,  assembled  at  Roundhead-Hall 
without  Cripplegate,  with  the  great  Direction  of  Master  Long  Breath  an  upright  new  inspired 
Cobler  Speaker  of  the  House.  Avowed  by  -Ananias  Dulman,  alias  Prick-ears  cler  pari.  Round 
London,  printed  for  T.  V.,  1642  (penes  me),  are  the  following  words:  "5.  That  we  have  no 
crosses,  for  they  are  meer  Popery,  and  tend  to  the  confusion  and  opposition  of  Scripture. 
Especially  let  the  sight  of  Cheap-side  Cross  be  a  detestation  unto  you  all,  and  let  these  streets, 
that  are  called  crosses  as  Red  Cross  Street  and  White  Cross,  &c.,  be  turned  otherwise,  and 
called  after  the  name  of  some  of  our  own  family,  as  Green  Spencer,  &c.,  and  call  it  rather  Green 
Street,  than  Red  Cross  Street,  &c.  That  thus  all  Profaneness  being  rooted  out  and  extirpated 
from  our  Conventions,  nothing  but  holiness  may  remain  amongst  us." 
2g 


450  History  of  the  Cross 

instead  of  Christ-Cross.  And  our  Brother  U.  L.  the  Baker,  in  detesta- 
tion of  this  figure,  would  not  so  much  as  prick  his  Loaves  with  a  headless 
Cross,  but  contented  himself  with  one  single  motion  of  his  Knife."  ' 

The  "  headless  cross"' — /.  c,  a  Tau  cross — spoken  of,  refers  to  tlie 
fact  that  even  the  use  of  the  Cross  by  the  illiterate  in  place  of  their 
„  ,.,  .  J  _         sitrnature  was  rejected  ;  the  ignorant  signing  their  mark  with 

Mutilated  Cross         t>  J  »  fc>  fc.  & 

in  Signature.  Q,-,g  q{  ).]-,g  arms  deficient,  thus  T  or  I—  instead  of  X,  as  in 
earlier  times.  The  Puritans  brought  their  hatred  of  the  Cross  to  this 
countr}',  as  was  shown  by  the  act  of  Endicott,  already  alluded  to,  in  pub- 
licly cutting  out  the  Cross  from  the  Colonial  standard. 

'  A  new  JVind-Mill  a  new.  Printed  at  Oxford,  1643,  penes  me,  p.  5.  A  defence  of  our 
Ancient  and  Modern  Historians,  p.  134. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE   SOUTHERN   CROSS 


THIS  constellation  is  composed  of  five  stars  :  one  of  the  first  mag- 
nitude, two  of  the  second,  one  of  the  third,  and  one  of  the 
fourth.  They  are  nearly  cruciform  in  their  position,  and  as  the  most 
southerly  and  most  northerly  are  in  line  with  the  south  pole,  they  serve 
as  pointers  to  the  Antarctic,  as  the  pointers  in  the  Great  Bear  do  to  the 
Arctic  pole." 

Besides  these  principal  stars,  the  surrounding  parts  of  the  constella- 
tion are  bright  with  nebulous  clusters,  one  of  which,  intermixed  with  the 
four  stars,  occupies  one  forty-eighth  part  of  a 
square  degree  and  consists  of  about  one  hundred 
stars,  from  the  seventh  magnitude  downwards, 
and  the  telescope  discloses  eight  of  the  more  con- 
spicuous to  be  colored  with  various  shades  of  red, 
green,  and  blue,  so  as  to  give  the  whole  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  piece  of  rich  jewelry.  But  no  words 
can  describe  it  like  Humboldt's: 

We  saw  distinctly  for  the  first  time  the  Cross 
of  the  South  only  on  the  night  of  the  4th  and  5th 
of  July  (  1799)  in  the  sixteenth  degree  of  lati- 
tude; it  was  strongly  inclined,  and  appeared  from  time  to  time  between 
the  clouds,  the  centre  of  which,  furrowed  by  uncondensed  lightnings, 
reflected  a  silver  light.  If  a  traveller  may  be  permitted  to  speak  of  his 
personal  emotions  I  shall  add,  that  on  this  night  I  saw  one  of  the  reveries 
of  my  earliest  youth  accomplished. 

"  When  we  begin  to  fix  our  eyes  on  geographical  maps,  and  read  the 

'  Herschel,  Outlines  of  Astronomy,  p.  597. 
451 


The  Southern  Cross.     From 
Crowther's  The  Starry  Cross 


452  History  of  the  Cross 

,  narratives  of  navigators,  we  feel  for  certain  countries  and  climates  a  sort 
of  predilection,  for  which  we  know  not  how  to  account  at  a  more  ad- 
vanced period  of  life.  These  impressions,  however,  exercise  a  consider- 
able influence  over  determinations,  and  from  a  sort  of  instinct  we 
endeavor  to  connect  ourselves  with  objects,  on  which  the  mind  has  long 
been  fixed  as  by  a  secret  charm.  At  the  period  at  which  I  studied  the 
heavens,  not  with  the  intention  of  devoting  myself  to  astronomy,  but 
only  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  stars,  I  was  agitated  by  a  fear  un- 
known to  those  who  lo\-e  a  sedentary  life.  It  seemed  painful  to  me  to 
renounce  the  hope  of  beholding  those  beautiful  constellations,  which 
border  the  Southern  pole.  Impatient  to  rove  in  the  equinoctial  regions, 
I  could  not  raise  my  eyes  without  thinking  of  the  Cross  of  the  South, 
and  without  recalling  the  sublime  passage  of  Dante  which  the  most 
celebrated  commentators  have  applied  to  this  constellation : 

'  lo  iiii  volii  a  man  ih'stra  e  pore  incnte 
Air  All ro  polo  e  vide  qiiatro  stelle 
Non  I'iste  inai  fiior  alia  prima  gente. 

'  Gchiar  paria,  lo  del  di  lor  feainmcllc  j 
O  setten  triom'l  vedovo  silo 
Poi privato  se'  di  mirar  giielle  !  ' ' 

"  The  pleasure  we  felt  on  discovering  the  Southern  Cross  was  warmly 
shared  by  such  of  the  crew  as  had  lived  in  the  colonies.  In  the  solitude 
of  the  seas,  we  hail  a  star  as  a  friend,  from  whom  we  have  been  long 
separated.  Among  the  Portuguese  and  the  Spaniards  peculiar  motives 
seem  to  increase  this  feeling;  a  religious  sentiment  attaches  them  to  a 
constellation  the  form  of  which  recalls  the  sign  of  tlie  faith  planted  by 
their  ancestors  in  the  deserts  of  the  new  world.  The  two  great  stars 
which  mark  the  summit  and  foot  of  the  Cross  having  nearly  the  same 
right  ascension  it  follows  hence,  that  the  constellation  is  almost  perpen- 
dicular at  the  moment  when  it  passes  the  meridian.  This  circumstance 
is   known   to   every   nation    that    lives    beyond    the    tropics,    or    in    the 

'  "To  tile  riglit  hand  I  tiirncl.  and  lixud  my  mind 
Upon  the  other  pole,  .Tnd  saw  four  stars 
Ne'er  seen  before  save  )>y  the  primal  people. 
Rejoicing  in  their  flamelets  seemed  the  heaven, 
O  thow  septentrional  and  widowed  site 
Because  thou  art  iloprived  of  seeing  these." 

Longfellow's  trans.,  Purg.,  canto  i.,  1.  22. 


The  Southern  Cross  453 

Southern  Hemisphere.  It  has  been  observed  at  what  hour  of  the  night, 
in  different  seasons,  the  Cross  of  the  South  is  erect,  or  incUncd.  It  is  a 
time-piece  that  advances  very  regularly  nearly  four  minutes  a  day,  and 
no  other  group  of  stars  exhibits  to  the  naked  eye,  an  observation  of  time 
so  easily  made.  How  often  have  we  heard  our  guides  exclaim  in  the 
savannahs  of  Venezuela,  or  in  the  desert  extending  from  Lima  to 
Tru.xillo,  '  Midnight  is  past,  the  Cross  begins  to  bend!'  How  often 
these  words  remind  us  of  that  affecting  scene,  where  Paul  and  Virginia, 
seated  near  the  source  of  the  river  of  Lataniers,  conversed  together  for 
the  last  time,  and  where  the  old  man  at  the  sight  of  the  Southern  Cross, 
warns  them  that  it  is  time  to  separate."  ' 

In  consequence  of  the  precession  of  the  equino.xes,  the  starry 
heavens  are  continually  changing  their  aspect  from  every  portion  of  the 
earth's  surface.  The  early  races  of  mankind  beheld  in  the  far  North  the 
glorious  constellation  of  our  Southern  Hemisphere  rise  before  them, 
which,  after  remaining  long  invisible,  will  again  appear  in  those  latitudes 
after  the  lapse  of  thousands  of  years.  .  .  .  The  Southern  Cross 
began  to  become  invisible  in  52°  20'  north  latitude  2900  years  before  our 
era,  since,  according  to  Galle,  this  constellation  might  previously  have 
leached  an  altitude  of  more  than  10°.  When  it  disappeared  from  the 
horizon  of  the  countries  on  the  Baltic,  the  great  pyramid  of  Cheops  had 
already  been  erected  more  than  five  hundred  years.  The  pastoral  tribe 
of  Hyksos  made  their  incursion  seven  hundred  years  earlier.  The  past 
seems  to  be  visibly  nearer  to  us  when  we  connect  its  measurement  with 
great  and  memorable  events." 

"  In  the  fourth  century  the  Christian  anchorites  in  the  Thebaid 
desert  might  have  seen  the  Cross  at  an  altitude  of  ten  degrees.  I  doubt, 
however,  whether  its  designation  is  due  to  them.  Dante  in  the  cele- 
brated passage  of  the  Pitrgatorio  : 

'  lo  mi  vo/si  a  man  drs/ra,'  etc., 

and  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  at  the  aspect  of  the  starry  skies  of  the  South 
first  called  to  mind  this  passage  on  his  third  voyage,  and  even  boasted 
that  he  now  '  looked  on  the  four  stars  never  seen  till  then  by  any  save 
the  first  human  pair,'  were  both  unacquainted  with  the  denomination  of 
the  Southern  Cross.     Amerigo  simply  observes,  that  the  four  stars  form 

'  Humboldt,  Personal  Narrative,  vol.  ii.,  p.  20. 


454  History  of  the  Cross 

a  rlioniboidal  figure  (una  inandorla),  and  this  remark  was  made  in  the 
year  1501.  The  more  frequentl}-  the  maritime  expeditions  on  the  routes 
opened  by  Gama  and  Magellan,  round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
through  the  Pacific,  were  multiplied,  and  as  Christian  missionaries  pene- 
trated into  the  newly  discovered  tropical  land  of  America,  the  fame  of 
this  constellation  continually  increased.  I  find  it  mentioned  first  by  the 
Florentine,  Andrea  Cossali,  in  15 17,  and  subsequently,  in  1620,  by  Piga- 
fetta,  as  a  wonderful  cross  (crocc  niaravigliosa)  more  glorious  than  all  the 
constellations  in  the  heavens.  The  learned  Florentine  extols  Dante's 
'  prophetic  spirit,'  as  if  the  great  poet  had  not  as  much  erudition  as 
creative  imagination,  and  as  if  he  had  not  seen  Arabian  celestial  globes, 
and  conversed  with  many  learned  Oriental  travellers  in  Pisa." 

Admirably  also  does  this  great  philosopher  expound  the  teaching  of 
the  Italian  poet,'  so  that  by  the  celestial  light  of  the  stars  we  read  the 
interpretation  of  the  luminaries  of  the  Cross  and  its  attendant  heralds, 
Canopus,  Achernar,  and  Fomalhaut,  which  set  when  the  four  stars  of  the 
Cross  arise.  "  I  have  endeavored,"  he  says,  "  to  solve  these  difficul- 
ties "  (those  of  the  commentators  on  Dante  respecting  the  qitattro  stcllc) 
by  the  following  considerations.  The  philosophical  and  religious 
mysticism  which  penetrates  and  vivifies  the  grand  composition  of  Dante, 
assigns  to  all  objects,  besides  their  real  or  material  existence,  an  ideal 
one.  It  seems  almost  as  if  we  beheld  two  worlds  reflected  in  one 
another.  The  four  stars  represent  in  their  moral  order,  the  cardinal 
\'irtues.  Prudence,  Justice,  Strength  and  Temi^erance;  and  they,  there- 
fore, merit  the  name  of  the  holy  lights,  liici  saiitc.  The  three  stars  which 
light  the  pole,  represent  the  theological  virtues.  Faith,  Hope,  and 
Charity.  The  first  of  these  beings,  themselves  reveal  their  double 
nature,  '  W'e  liere  are  Nymphs,  and  in  the  Heaven  are  stars.'  Noi  scin 
qui  iiinfc,  c  iicl  ciclo  sciii  stillc.''  '  In  the  land  of  ti'uth.  in  the  terrestrial 
paradise  there  arc  seven  nymphs.'  /;/  ccrcliio  faccran  di  sc  claustro  Ic 
settc  ninfe.  This  is  the  union  of  all  the  cardinal  and  theological  virtues. 
Under  these  mystic  forms,  we  can  scarcely  recognize  the  real  objects 
of  the  firmament,  separated  from  each  other,  according  to  the  eternal 
laws  of  the  celestial  iiicclianiiiiii.      The  product  of  poetic  ins[)iration. " 

That    Ilumholdl   has   interpreted   truK',  no   one   can   doubt   who  will 

'  The  passages  which  refer  to  the  Cross  and  the  three /(/cjV/c  are  Piiix-.  i..  22-24,  37  1  viii., 
85-';3  ;  xxix.,  121  ;  xxx.,  97  ;  xxxi.,  106  ;  and  Iiifi-r.,  xxvi.,  117,  127.  •  Piirg.,  xxxi.,  lof). 


The  Southern  Cross  455 

compare  the  passages  to  which  reference  has  been  made.  How  beauti- 
fully are  the  three  who  "  here  are  nymphs  but  in  heaven  are  stars  "  set 
forth  in  their  mystic  symbolic  colors. 

"  Three  maidens  at  the  right  wheel  in  a  circle 
Came  onward  dancing  ;  one  so  very  red 
That  in  the  fire  she  hardly  had  been  noted. 
The  second  was  as  if  her  flesh  and  bones 
Had  all  been  fashioned  out  of  emerald  ; 
The  third  appeared  as  snow  but  newly  fallen."  ' 

There  is  an  old  tradition  that  the  Southern  Cross  was  the  Advent 
banner  of  the  old-world  explorers.  A  writer  in  Blackwood  thus  alludes 
to  it: 

The  rainbow  at  the  flood  was  not  then  first  created,  '  but  it  was 
then  first  selected  by  preference  amongst  a  multitude  of  natural  signs  as 
yet  unappointecl,  and  then  first  charged  with  the  new  function  of  a  mes- 
sage and  a  ratification  to  man.  Pretty  much  the  same  theory,  that  is, 
the  same  way  of  accounting  for  the  natural  existence  without  disturbing 
the  supernatural  functions,  may  be  applied  to  the  great  constellation  of 
the  other  hemisphere,  called  the  Southern  Cross.  It  is  viewed  popularly 
in  South  America,  and  the  southern  parts  of  our  Northern  Hemisphere, 
as  the  great  banner  or  gonfanon  held  aloft  by  heaven  before  the  Spanish 
heralds  of  the  true  faith  in  1492.  To  that  superstitious  and  ignorant 
race  it  cost  not  an  effort  to  suppose  that  by  some  synchronizing  miracle, 
the  constellation  had  been  then  specially  called  into  existence  at  the  very 
moment  when  the  first  Christian  procession,  bearing  a  cross  in  their  arms, 
solemnly  stepped  on  shore  from  the  vessels  of  Christendom.'  True  we 
know  it  was  not  so,  yet  '  as  the  glorious  cross  does  really  glitter  through 
the  silent  hours  of  a  vast  hemisphere,  even  they  who  are  not  superstitious, 
may  willingly  yield  to  the  belief  that,  as  the  rainbow  was  laid  in  the  very 
elements  and  necessities  of  nature,  yet  still  bearing  a  pre-dedication  to  a 
service  which  would  not  be  called  for  until  many  ages  had  passed,  so  also 
the  mysterious  cypher  of  man's  imperishable  hopes  may  have  been 
entwined  and  enwreathed  with  the  starry  heavens  from  their  earliest 
creation,  as  a  prefiguration,  as  a  silent  heraldry  of  hope  through  one 
period,  and  as  a  heraldry  of  gratitude  through  the  other.'  "  " 

'  Purg.,  xxix.,  121.  "  Blackwood's  Magazine,  vol.  xlvii.,  p.  555. 


CHAPTER  XII 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Section  i. — Notczvorthy  Crosses  in  History  and  Nature.     Section  2. — Ingen- 
ious Crosses.     Seetion  j. —  The  Cross  and  Pile.     Section  7. — Good 
Friday  Cross-Buns.     Section  5. —  Tlie  Crown  of  Tliorns. 

WHEN  Margaret,  granddaughter  of  Edmund   Ironside,  and  wife  of 
Malcolm,   fled  to  Scotland,  she  carried  with  lier  among  other 
T.,   ni    ;.  D    J    treasures  the  celebrated  Black  Rood.     According  to  Hailes, 

The  Black  Rood  •=>  » 

ofscotiand.  J),  ^^^g  about  a  palm's  length,  the  figure  of  ebony,  studded 
with  gold,  and  containing  a  fragment  of  the  true  Cross.  Upon  her 
death-bed  Margaret  embraced  and  kissed  it  as  long  as  life  remained. 
Afterwards  it  is  said  to  have  been  deposited  upon  the  altar  of  Dunferm- 
line, where  the  queen  was  buried  in  1093,  but  it  was  removed  from  its 
shrine  to  be  a  consolation  to  David  I.  in  his  last  illness  in  11 53. 

Frequent  mention  is  made  of  tlie  relic  in  after-times.  Upon  the 
Black  Rood,  James  Steward  of  Scotland  swore  fealty  to  Edward  I.  of 
England,'  who  brought  from  Scotland  the  great  charter  called  the 
Ragman  Roll,"  the  Black  Rood,  and  the  coronation  stone,"  which, 
according  to  tradition,  was  used  as  Jacob's  pillow  and  is  still  placed 
under  the  seat  of  the  Coronation  Throne  of  England.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  been  restored  with  the  Nigh  cross.  Miss  Strickland  says  it  was  re- 
stored to  Scotland  in  1327  by  Edward  III."     They  used  to  be  kept  with 

'  "  F5y  liis  corporal  oath  taken  upon  the  consecrated  body  of  Christ,  and  upon  the  two  holy 
crosses,  to  wit,  the  Cross  Neytz  and  the  Black  Rood  and  other  holy  reliques." — Baronia 
Anglica,  p.  268. 

'  For  a  full  account  of  the  travels  of  this  stone,  see  Brady,  Clavis  Calaidaria,  vol.  ii.,  p.  163^ 
and  Dean  Stanley,  Hist,  of  Westminstey  Abbey. 

^  Query,  is  tliis  Cross  the  same  as  that  of  S.  Neot,  upon  which  Sir  Francis  I'algrave  says 
the  nobles  of  Scotland  swore  allegiance  ?  Merchant  and  Friar,  p.  187.  S.  Neot  was  the  brother 
of  Alfred  ;  his  lay  name  was  Athelstan. 

456 


Miscellaneous  457 

other  relics  in  the  treasury  of  Westminster.  We  next  read  of  it  as  being 
in  the  possession  of  David  Bruce,  who  lost  both  it  and  his  Hfe  at  the 
battle  of  Neville's  Cross,  Durham,  October  i8,  1346.'  It  is  difficult  to 
keep  trace  of  it  loncjcr  ;  perhaps  two  crosses  have  been  confounded  by 
historians.  At  Durham  a  cross  was  preserved  claimintj  to  be  the  orit^inal ; 
but  the  description  differs.  This  was  "  a  most  faire  roode,  or  picture, 
of  our  Saviour  in  silver,  called  the  Black  Roode  of  Scotland,  brought  out 
of  Holy  Rood  House  by  King  David  Bruce  with  the  pictiu'e  of  Our 
Dady  on  the  one  side,  and  of  our  Sa\iour  and  S.  Jt)hn  on  the  other  side, 
very  richly  overwrought  in  silver,  all  three  having  crowns  of  pure  beaten 
gold  of  goldsmith's  work,  with  a  device  to  take  them  off  or  on."  '  San- 
derson's description,  while  agreeing  in  some  points,  would  make  the 
Cross  much  too  large  for  the  original  sacred  relic.  "  Which  rood  and 
pictures,"  he  writes,  "  were  richly  wrouglit  in  silver,  and  were  all  smoked 
black  all  over,  being  large  pictures  of  a  yard,  or  five  quarters  long,  and 
on  every  one  of  their  heads  a  crown  of  pure  beaten  gold." 

There  is  but  little  probability  of  this  precious  relic  being  in  existence. 
If  it  had  not  disappeared  in  intestine  warfare,  the  sacrilegious  church 
robbers  of  Henry  VIII.  and  the  Puritans  would  not  have  spared  what 
they  would  have  considered  a  "  Nehushtan  "  of  such  value.  Its  sacred 
repute  is  alluded  to  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  Halbert  Glendinning,  warning 
Henry  Warden  against  Julian  Avenel,  says:  "  Take  this  advice  for  your 
safety,  and  believe  that  it  is  founded  upon  the  usage  of  this  country 
and  its  inhabitants.  If  you  can  better  shift  for  yourself,  go  not  to  the 
Castle  of  Avenel, — if  you  do  risk  going  thither,  obtain  from  him,  if  pos- 
sible, his  safe-conduct,  and  beware  that  he  swears  it  by  the  Black 
Rood."  = 

There  was  also  another  cross,  bearing  a  similar  name,  the  Black  Rood 
of  S.  Helen's  in  Abingdon.  Popular  tradition  in\ests  it,  like  the  former, 
with    supernatural    power.       It    was    believed    that    God 

'  ^  Black  Rood  of 

specially  punished  perjury  when  this  cross  was  sworn  by.        s.  Helen's  in 

Abingdon. 

It  was  made  of  iron,  and  buried  upon  the  breast  of  Cissa, 

uncle  to  the  founder.  Heme,  of  the  abbey  of  Abingdon,  and  found  by 

the  Abbot  of  Athewold  when  excavating  for  the  walls  of  S.  Helen's.     The 

'  Anderson,  Scotland  in  Early  Christian   Times,  1st  ser.,  p.  241. 

'  Description  of  the  Ancient  Monuments,  Rites,  and  Customs  of  the  Abbey  Church  at 
Durham,  written  in  1593. 

'  The  Monastery,  chap.  xxiv. 


458 


History  of  the  Cross 


Cross  of  Toledo. 


token    upon    this    sacred    symbol    was    in    words    nearly   similar  to  the 
following: 

"  Among  the  ornaments    of    which    Phildebert,    the    son   of  Clovis, 
robbed   the  Church  of  Toledo   when   he   ravaged  Spain  in   542,   was  a 

magnificent  cross  enriched  with 
w  r  o  u  g  h  t  g  e  m  s , 
which,"  so  said 
the  tradition,  "  had  belonged 
to  King  Solomon."  As  the 
cross  was  consecrated  to  As- 
tarte,  whose  worshipper  the 
King  of  Jerusalem  became, 
there  may  have  been  some 
ground  for  the  story. 

More  modern,  but  a  valued 
relic  is  the  cross  given  by  the 

C"  ^"^^^^y.  Cross  of  Richard    ^^rchbishop  of  Cy- 

~  ^^fe-^«^\  CcEurdeLion.      prus  to  Sir  Sidney 

Smith.  It  was  given  as  the 
offering  of  a  grateful  people  to 
the  "  hero  of  Acre,"  and  held 
by  them  to  be  the  same  which  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  bestowed  upon  the 
Patriarch  when  he  went  to  the  third  Crusade.  Sir  Sidney  Smith  be- 
queathed this  valuable  relic  to  the  convent  of  the  Order  of  S.  John  in 
Jerusalem,  in  Paris,  as  being  the  successors  of  the  Temphirs,  with  the 
direction  that  it  should  be  worn  by  the  Grand  Master  in  perpetuity. 

William  the  Concjueror  swore  Per  ]^ultinn  Lucca,  i.  c,  the  crucifix 
said  to  ha\-e  been  made  by  Nicodemus.  Louis  XL  of  I'~rance  regarded 
his  word  as  binding  only  when  sworn  b_\-  the  Cross  of  S.  Lo 
d'Angcrs,  which  he  supposed  contained  a  fragment  of  the 
true  Cross.  The  king  refused  to  pledge  safe  conduct  to  the  Constable 
of  .S.  Paul's  on  this  relic,  though  he  was  ready  to  take  any  other  oath. 
He  believed  that  should  he  forswear  himself  on  this  cross  he  would  die 
within  a  year. 

Black  Marble  ^'''  ^Valtcr  Scott,  ill  liis  Ii7'i-  of  S.  Jo/iii,  rcfcrs  to  a  cruci- 

cross  at  Melrose,  f^^  of   1^].,^.]^.  n^^^j-bit;  at   McIrosc,   wliich  was  celebrated  for 
its  superior  sanctity.      The  Lady  of  Smaylho'me  Tower  meets  the  spirit 


Black  Cross  of  Abingdon,      From  Palmer  and 
Cronquill's  ll'a)ii/crini;s  of  a  Pin  and  Pcmil. 


Other  Crosses. 


Miscellaneous  459 

of  her  lover,  who  appears  as  when  he  Hved,  and  she,  not  knowing  that 
he  had  been  slain  b)'  her  hu,;band,  urges  an  interview  on  the  following 
night : 

"And  I  '11  ciuiin  tiie  blood-hound,  and  the  warder  shall  not  sound, 
And  rushes  shall  he  streu'd  on  the  stair  ; 
So,  by  the  black  rood-stone,  and  by  holy  S.  John, 
I  conjure  thee,  my  love,  to  be  there  !  " 

The  power  of  the  adjuration  is  shown  by  her  ghostly  lover's  confessing 
when  he  appears  in  "  the  chamber  fair," 

"But  I  had  not  power  to  come  to  thy  bower 
Had'st  thou  not  conjured  me  so."' 

One  of  the  attributes  of  S.  Bernardius  of  Siena  is  the  Mo)itc-di-Picta, 
a  little  green  hill  composed  of  three  mounds,  and  on  the  top  either  a 
cross,    or   a   standard    on   which    is   the    fiijurc   of   the   dead 

'  *^  Cross  upon 

Saviour,  usually  called  in  Italy,  a  Picta.  It  has  been  sup-  Monte-di-Pieta. 
posed  that  to  S.  Bernardius  belongs  the  honor  of  founding,  in  every  city 
in  which  he  preached  in  France  and  Italy,  charitable  socie-  q^..  jnofpawn- 
ties  for  lending  money  to  the  poor  upon  pledges.     Another  brokers, 

brother  of  the  same  order,  "  II  Bernardino  da  Fcltri,"  who  preached  in 
the  Church  of  Santo  Cruce,  1488,  against  Jews  and  usury,  and  the  need 
of  a  Montc-di-Picta  at  Florence,  is  also  supposed  by  some  to  be  the  true 
founder  of  these  banks  for  the  poor,  and  to  claim  this  symbol.  These 
Montc-di-Picta  were  not  perverted  into  mere  usury-shops,  like  modern 
pawnbrokers.  Interest  was  reasonable,  and  many  placed  their  little 
possessions  in  these  institutions  for  the  summer  season  when  employ- 
ment was  scarce,  and  withdrew  them  when  autumn  brought  travellers 
and  work. 

Jesinii  is  the  name  given  by  the  Japanese  to  the  ceremony  of  tramp- 
ling upon  the  Cross  and   the   picture  of  the  Virgin.      It   is  said  to  have 

'  Minstrelsy  of  t!ie  Scottish  Border,  vol.  iv.,  pp.  i88,  193.  The  superstition  that  some  evil 
spirits  cannot  cross  the  threshold  of  a  home,  unless  aided  by  human  power,  is  referred  to  by 
Coleridge,  where  Christabel  brings  in  Geraldine  : 

"  The  lady  sank,  belike  through  pain, 
And  Christabel  with  might  and  main 
Lifted  her  up,  a  weary  weight. 
Over  the  threshold  of  the  gate  : 
Then  the  lady  rose  again, 
And  moved,  as  she  were  not  in  pain." 


460 


History  of  the  Cross 


been  suggested  to  the  go\-ernment  by  the  Dutch,  who,  impelled  by  the 

"  sacred  lust  of  gold  "   into  compliance  with  tliis  custom,  retained  the 

trade  of  Japan  for  several  hundred  years.     The  images  were 

Jesuni.  .      ,    ^  ,  ,  ,  .     ,  ,        , 

carried  from  house  to  house  and  even  miants  at  the  breast 
were  compelled  to  comply  with  it.' 

Not  alone  have  history  and  art  in  various  ways  and  from  immemorial 

times  represented  the  symbol  of  life,  and  told  the  story  of  the  Divine 

sacrifice.       Even    the   voiceless,    but    marvellous    works    of 

Natural  Crucifix.  .  r      ,        ,  i-       •  ^      1      •      ^^ 

nature,  often  remind  us  of  the  humiliation  of  their  Creator. 
One  of  the  apartments  in  the  grotto  of  Adelsberg,  in  Austria,  is  called 
the  Cathedral,  not  only  on  account  of  its  church-like  appearance,  but  also 
because  it  contains  a  most  singular  group  of  stalactites  resembling  the 
Crucifixion.     The  floor  of  the  apartment  "  resembles  a  plain  dotted  with 


Magnified  Scales  of  the  Minnow. 
From  T/ie  Art  younial. 


Cross-  or  Star-spored  Fungus. 
From  T/u-  Art  yoiirual. 


hills;  and  upon  the  summit  of  one  of  these  elevations,  against  the  side  of 
tiie  cavern,  stand  three  crosses,  the  central  one  taller  than  the  others, 
and  each  supporting  what  strangely  resembles  a  human  figure.  The 
surface  of  the  hill  sloping  from  the  foot  of  the  crosses  down  to  the  plain, 
as  also  the  opposite  hill  sloping  upward,  are  covered  with  spiculre,  or 
accretions,  standing  thick,  and  of  proportionate  height,  representing 
with  wonderful  fidelity  the  appearance  of  a  vast  crowd  gazing  at  the 
spectacle. "  " 

Among  the  minerals  belonging  to  the  order  of  hyalinea,  so  rich  in 
gems,   several   bear  the  sacred  sign  in   their  crystals.     The  andalusite, 

'  Mercier,  Fragments,  vol.  i.,  p.  204.  -  The  Century,  May,  i88g. 


The  Cross  in  Flowers.     From  Tlic  Arr  Journal. 
461 


46: 


History  of  the  Cross 


known  also  as  the  chiastolite,  or  crucite,  often  presents  the  appearances 
shown  in  the  plate.  The  crystals  of  the  staurotide  or  staurolite  are 
still  more  beautiful  and  perfect.  Even  so  low  in  the  scale  of  created 
beings  as  the  medusa,  the  Piliiiograda  Lyutuorca  exhibit  on  the  disk 
a  most  exquisitely  formed  Greek  cross.'  This  is  also  to  be  seen  in  the 
Eudora  undnlosa,  though  perhaps  it  is  not  always  so  distinctly  traced ; 
in  fact,   we  may  find   it  in  all  the   kingdoms  of  nature.      Even  among 


Snow  Crystals.      From  Crow  thcr's   The  S/tirrv  i'i\>is. 

microscopic  objects  we  note  especiall}-  the  members  of  the  stauromed- 
usan  family." 

Vegetable  life  abounds  with  curious  and  suggestive  forms,  of  which  a 
few  illustrations  will  sufifice.  It  is  remarked  by  naturalists  that  most  of 
Cruciform  ^^^^  spccimcns  represented  are  innocuous.     And  the  query 

Flowers.  arises,  is  it  a  mere  accident  of  nature  that  cruciferous  plants 

bearing  fruit  are  not  onl)-  not  poisonous,  but  are  often  nutritious  ?' 

'  .See  ])late  in  Piiiny  Cyclcpadia. 

'  Quarterly  Journal,  Microscopic  Science,  October,  1 867. 

'  The  Unseen  World,  p.  16. 


Miscellaneous 


463 


Cross  in  Sand. 


Sir  David   Brewster  calls   our  attention   to   the   fact   that   if  sand    is 
sprinkled   on  a  thin  metal  plate,  and  the  key-note  of  that 
plate  is  sounded  upon  a  stringed  instrument,  the  sand   will 
arrange  its  grains  in  the  form  of  a  cross.' 

The  falling  flakes  of  snow  exhibit  an  infinite 
variety   of    cruciform  crystals,  re- 
protlucing  ill  beautiful  shapes  the 
sign  of  the  Cross.'' 

A  tear-drop  is  full  of  minute  crosses,  and 
when  it  has  evaporated,  leaves  in 
unmistakable  characters  its  cruci- 
form record  of  sorrow. 


Crosses  in  Snow, 


A  Tear. 


Crystallization  of  a  Tear-Drop. 

From  Crowther's    The  Starry 

Cross. 


Section    2.     Ingenious    Crosses. — The   cruciform    arrangement    of 
words  of  prayer  and  praise  in  the  form  presented  below,  Holland  says, 


SULASASALUS 

LASATASAL 

S  AT  R  T A  S 

TR  E  RT 

RE  C  E  R 

E  C  I    C  E 

C  I    H  I   C 
M  I  H   I   H  I  M 

VI  HIMIH  CV 

IGV  IMXJII  MEC 

GVFEKIH  I  MXV  XDOMINIME 
VFEKIHI  MXVRVXDO  MINIM 
F  E  R  I  H  I  M  X  V  R  C  R  ■^^  X  D  O  M  I  N  I 
VFERIHI  MXVRVXDO  MINIM 
GVFERIH   IMXV  XDOMINIME 


IGV 

SEXES 

MEC 

VI 

TS  E  S  T 

C  V 

M 

QT  S  TQ 

VQ  T  Q  V 

AV  Q  VA 

M  A  V  AM 

S  M  A  M  S 

E  S  M  S  E 

M  E  S  E  M 

P  M  E  M  P 

E  P  M  P  E 

ARE  P  ERA 

ODARERADO 

ORODARADORO 

M 

Croce  Angelica  di  S.  Tomasa  de 

Aquince.      From    Holland's 

Crticiana. 

is  called  "  Crocc  Angelica  di  S.  Tomasa  dc  Aquiiur,"  and  was  originally 
used  as  a  charm,  having  been  found  behind  every  window-shutter  in  a 
house  at  Frascati,  to  preserve  it  from  lightning. 

It  consists  of  four  Latin  sentences,   each  beginning  from  the  word 

'  Brewster,  Letters  on  Natural  Magic,  letter  viii. 
"  Crowther,  Starry  Cross,  p.  21. 


464 


History  of  the  Cross 


"  Crux  "  in  the  centre.     The  following  has  been  given  as  an   English 

translation ; 

"  The  Cross  I  ever  adore, 

The  Cross  of  the  Lord  is  with  me  ; 
The  Cross  doth  my  safety  ensure, 
The  Cross  still  mv  refut'e  shall  be."' 


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una 

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c  r  u  X  q: 


c    r  a  s  r  u 


Acroslic  of  Rr\ban  Maur.      P'rom  Maiir's  Dc-  Laiii/ihiis  Sanctu-  Cruris. 

A  curious  work  of  ingenuity  is  given  on  the  following  page.  Its 
author  is  unknown,  but  it  excels  any  of  Raban  Maur,  Archbishop  of 
Mayence,  who,  in  .\.n.  S47,  wrote  an  elaborate  poem  in  praise  and  honor 

'  llollarul,  Crticiiiiiii,  ]i.  279. 


Miscellaneous 


465 


of  the  Cross,  in  which  twenty-eight  acrostics,  if  they  may  be  so  called, 
are  introduced ;  the  words  and  figures  forming  part  of  each  separate 
verse,  and  yet  complete  in  themselves. 


0  Gou,  my  GOD 

1  come  to  thee,  bow 
Hear  me,  a  wretch  ! 
Did  never  close 


IN     RI 


vers  of  my  tears 

down  thy  blessed  ears 

and  let  thyne  eye  which  sleep 

behold  a  sinner  weep. 


Let  not 

bet 

0  G 

ou,   my 
w 

God 

my 

faults,  though  great 

And  numberless. 

een  thy  mercy  seat 

And  my  poor  soul  be  t 

h 

rown  since  we  are  taught 

Thou 

Lore 

,  reme 
me 

mber 

'st  th 

y 

h 

ne 

if 

thou  be 

sought 

Ico 

not 

Lord  wit 

any  0 

the 

r  merit, 

Than 

wh 

at  I,  by  my  S 

a 

viour 

Ch 

rist  inherit. 

Beth 

en 

his  wound 

s 

my  balm  his  st 

ri 

pes  my  bliss, 

My  crown  his 

th 

orns,  my  dea 

t 

h  lo 

st 

in  his  ; 

And  th 

ou 

my  bles 

t 

Redeemer 

Sa 

viour,  God 

Quit  my  ac 

CO 

unts,  with 

h 

old  thy 

ve 

ngeful  rod. 

0  plead  for 

me 

my  h 

0 

pes  on 

t 

hee  are  set ; 

Thou  Chri 

st 

forgi 

V 

e  as  well  as  pay  t 

h 

e  debt. 

The  liv 

in 

g  fount,  the  li 

f 

e  the  wa 

y 

I  know. 

And  but 

to 

thee 

0 

whither 

s 

hould  I  go  ? 

All  0 

th 

er  helps  a 

r 

e  vain,  giv 

e 

thine  to  me, 

Fur  by  th 

y 

Cross  my 

s 

aving  hea 

1 

th  must  be. 

0  hear 

k 

en,  then,  wh 

a 

t  I  with 

f 

aith  implore  ! 

Lest  s 

in 

and  death  sin 

k 

me  for 

e 

ver  more  ! 

0  Lord  my 

G 

od,  my  \^•ay 

e 

s  direct 

a 

nd  keep  ; 

In  death 

d 

efe 

n 

d  that  from  thee  I 

n 

e'er  slip. 

And  at  the  do 

om 

let 

m 

e  be  raise 

d 

then 

I'o  liv 

e 



wit 

1  the 

e 

sweet  Jes 

us 

say  Amen  ! 

A  little  examination   will  enable   the   reader   to  deci[)her  this  more 

modern    work.       Each    cross    contains,    reading   downwards,   the  dying 

words  of  the   Divine  Sufferer  and  his  companions;  while  read  across,  it 

forms  a  liymn  of  some  merit. 
30 


466  History  of  "the  Cross 

Section  3.  Cross  and  Pile. — Cross  and  Pile  was  the  name  of  a 
game,  now  given  over  to  cliildreii,  and  known  as  "  Heads  and  Tails."  It 
has  the  respectability  of  antiquity  for  its  origin,  for  the  Greek  schoolboys 
played  at  Ostrachinda.  A  shell  was  smeared  on  one  side  with  pitch, 
while  the  other  was  left  in  its  original  whiteness;  when  tossed  in  the  air, 
the  cry  was  vvB,,  or  rji-itpa,  night,  or  day.  A  similar  game  was  familiar 
to  the  Gauls;  but  their  call,  adopted  from  the  coinage,  was  Caput,  ant 
navcin.  Royalty  itself  condescended  to  be  amused  with  it,  as  appears 
from  a  MS.  account  of  the  private  expenses  of  King  Edward  II.,  in 
which  several  items  are  charged  as  lost  at  Cross  and  Pile.' 

Butler,  in  Hudibras,  gives  a  sly  hit  at  the  honesty  of  the  game: 

"  That  you  as  sure  may  pick  and  choose, 
At  cross  I  win,  and  pile  you  lose."' 

The  same  author  also  uses  the  term  figuratively  for  money  generally: 

"  VVhachum  had  neither  cross,  nor  pile, 
His  plunder  was  not  worth  the  while."  ' 

There  is  much  doubt  as  to  the  origin  of  the  word  "  pile."     J.  A. 

Montague   derives  it   from  pile,   the   heraldic  term    for   the   wedge-like 

shape  of  very  ancient  shields,   which   are   represented   on 

Origin  of  Terms.  14^1  r  -i 

some  old  coins.  Other  antiquarians  derive  it  from  pilnm, 
an  arrow,  or  the  head  of  a  ship';  others,  again,  think  it  comes  from 
pila,  a  ball,  and  trace  a  connection  between  coins  and  the  three  balls, 
once  the  honorable  arms  of  the  Medici  and  Lombards,  but  now  the  well- 
known  symbol  of  the  pawnbroker.'  Reading  says  the  term  is  derived 
from  poll,  a  head,  and  states  that  Edward  I.,  .-\.D.  1304,  in  delivering 
stamps  for  the  coinage,  ordered  that  "  three  piles  and  si.x  crosses  shall 
be  given."  '  Fosbroke  traces  it  to  the  money  of  the  second  dynasty  of 
French  kings,  on  the  reverse  of  which  was  a  peristyle,  or  columns,  then 
called  pt/ce.'     A  vast  deal  of  antiquarian  lore  has  been  exhibited  by  the 

'  Fosbroke,  Encyclopedia  of  Aiitii].,  p.  f>r|5  ;  Favine,   Theatre  of  Honour,  torn,  i.,  pi.  x. 
'  Part  iii.,  canto  iii.,  line  687. 
''■  Part  ii.,  canto  iii.,  line  1103. 
^  Montague,  Guide  to  the  Study  of  Heraldry,  p.  7. 
'  A'otes  and  Queries,  vol.  vi.,  p.  513. 

'  Signifying,  in  slang  parlance,  there  are  two  chances  to  one  that  you  will  not  redeem  the 
article. 

'  Reading,  Annals  of  Coinage,  vol.  ii  ,  p.  iig. 
'  Fosbroke,  Encyclopetdia  of  Antiquity,  p.  615. 


Miscellaneous  467 

contributors  to  Notes  and  Queries,  during  the  past  few  years,  on  this 
subject — so  trifling  in  tlie  estimation  of  all  but  the  "  Drs.  Dry-as-dust." 
They  add  to  the  above  derivations  the  following':  One  derives  it  from 
Pylon,  the  well-known  Egyptian  symbol  of  royalty;  another  {yo\\\  pile, 
the  imprint  of  the  under  iron  shown  on  the  back  of  the  coin';  )-et 
another  from  Crux,  vel  Pileits,  or  head  with  Roman  cap  or  helmet,  or 
from  pile,  a  ship.  Another  writes  that  the  coins  of  William  the  Con- 
queror were  marked  Pille  ' bii  rex  on  the  obverse,  and  with  a  cross  on  the 
reverse;  the  P  might  have  been  unintelligible  to  the  Norman  subjects  of 
William/ 

Section  4.  Good  Friday  Cross-Buns. — Among  the  relics  of  the 
ante-Christian  age  is  that  remembered  on  Good  Friday  in  the  Cross-bun. 
Among  the  earliest  offerings  to  the  Creator  were  corn  and 

^  Pre-Christian 

wine.  Sacrificial  cakes  soon  succeeded.  Hesychius  and  Origin  of  Cross- 
Julius  Pollux  refer  to  such  among  the  sacred  offerings  of 
the  Greeks.  Diogenes  Laertius  gives  the  ingredients.  It  is  said  that 
Cecrops  offered  the  first  Bans,  as  these  cakes  were  called,  made  of  fine 
flour  and  honey.'  From  this  word  our  "  bun  "  is  derived.  The  prophet 
Jeremiah  charges  the  women  with  idolatry  in  offering  such  cakes  to 
Astarte  (Jer.  vii.,  i8).  Indignantly  they  retaliate,  reversing  Adam's 
plea  when  seduced  by  Eve.  "  IDid  we  make  cakes  to  worship  her,  and 
pour  out  drink  offerings  without  our  men  ?"  (Jer.  xli\'.,  i<S,  ig) — inti- 
mating that  in  this  case  it  was  the  stronger  which  led  the  weaker  away. 

In  post-Christian  days,  the  bun  has  been  ingeniously  brought  into 
Christian  usage,  flavored  with  coriander  to  preserve  the  memory  of  manna 
(Ex.  xvi.,  14-31  ;  Num.  xi.,  7);  the  bun  is  presumed  to  be  a  memorial  of 
the  panis  dceiissatits  of  the  early  Christians,  and  a  relic  of  the  ancient 
unleavened  simnel  cakes  formerly  eaten  at  Easter  in  memory  of  the 
Paschal  lamb. 

Bread  marked  with  crosses  was  found  amid  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum, 
but  probably  merely  for  the  utilitarian  object  of  facility  in  breaking. 

In  the  Museo  Lapidaro  of  the  Vatican  is  a  tablet  supposed  to  repre- 

'  A'oUs  and  Queries,  vol.  xii.,  p.  206. 
'  /did.,  June  i,  1861. 
^  Ibid.,  2d  series,  xii.,  pp.  332,  404. 

^  Christmas  pies  to  be  correct  should  be  oblong,  the  shape  symbolizing  the  manger  ;  the 
spices,  the  gifts  of  the  wi.se  men.     See  more  fully.  Brand,  Antiquities. 


468  History  of  the  Cross 

sent  the  miracle  of  the  five  barley  loaves.     The  loaves  are  round  cakes 
with  a  cross  thereon,  like  the  Good  Friday  bun. 

In  the  reign  of  Henry   III.,  bakers  were   forbidden  to 

Use  of  Sacred 

Signs  on  Bread     print  the  Cross,  the  Agn2is  Dei,  and  the  name  of  our  Lord 

Forbidden.  ,  .  ... 

upon  bread,  as  a  guard  against  superstition. 
Foik-Lore  Super-        AiTiong   bygonc    customs    was   that   of   reserving  Good 

stilions  about  Use 

of  the  Bun.  Friday  biuis, 

"  Whose  virtue  is,  if  you  believe  what  's  said, 
They  '11  not  grow  mouldy  like  the  common  bread."  '^ 

The  bun  was  a  preservative  against  fire,  and  the  crumbs  were  sovereign 
against  diseases  among  cattle. 

Section  5.  The  Crown  of  Thorns.— The  other  instruments  of  the 
Passion,  besides  the  Cross,  have  been  fully  treated  in  works  which  are 
easily  accessible  ;  hence  it  is  not  needful  to  dwell  upon  them.  But  the 
traditions  which  cluster  about  the  "  crown  of  thorns  "  are  less  known,  and 
are  of  sufficient  interest  to  repay  the  trouble  of  collecting  a  few  examples. 
The  reputed  crown  also  was  held  in  estimation,  perhaps  next  to  the 
Cross,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  art  sanctions  the  tradition  that  while  the 
scarlet  robe  was  stripped  from  the  Divine  Sufferer,  the  crown  of  mockery 
was  allowed  to  remain,  and  has  been  preserved  by  the  piety  of  after  ages. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  of  what  kind  of  shrub  the  crown  of 
thorns  was  made.  The  charitable  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  who  finds  hope  of 
What  Kind  of  nicrcy  cvcu  for  Judas,  considers  it  improbable  that  any  ad- 
Thorns?  ditional  torture  except  mockery  was  imposed  upon  the 
wearer,  and  that  what  is  translated  as  a  crown  of  thorns,  was  in  reality  a 
chaplet  of  some  soft  plant,  acanthus  or  bear's-foot.  He  thinks  the  silence 
of  early  writers,  before  Tertullian,  on  the  severity  of  this  part  of  Christ's 
Passion  bears  him  out,  and  quotes  Michaelis  and  Bishop  Pearce  as  of  that 
opinion.  But  it  is  not  likely  that  the  soldiers  of  such  a  stern,  cruel 
nation  as  the  Romans  would  have  been  merciful  in  their  mockery.  Be- 
sides the  measure  of  the  curse  must  be  filled  up.  Thorns  and  thistles 
were  the  reward  of  the  "  First  Adam,"  and  they  must  not  be  absent 
when  the  "  .Second  "  is  fulfilling  the  doom.  There  is,  however,  some 
slight   foundation   for  the   amiable   belief  that   the  crown  was  not  of  the 

'  Walcott.  Sacred  ArcluTol.,  "(Sood  Krid.-iy." 
'Poor  Robin  Almanack,  1733. 


Miscellaneous  469 

fearful  nature  depicted  by  artists,  in  tlic  tradition  tliat  the  crown  was 
made  of  a  sort  of  bulrush. 

Clemens  Alexandrinus '  and  others  suppose  it  to  Iiave  been  plaited  of 
the  Khiitiiiii/s  Rudo,''  or  blackberry,  a  shrujj  throut;h  which  even  the  birds 
could  not  tly,  and  which  they  think  was  the  bramble  in  which  the  Lord 
appeared  unto  Moses.  If  the  Ritl/o  be  the  shrub  known  as  the  black- 
berry, still  it  is  hardly  probable  that  any  traditionary  authority  can  be 
attached  to  it,  because  of  the  color,  which  was  considered  in  all  ages  as 
ominous — perhaps  this  may  make  as  much  for  as  against  it. 

In  direct  opposition  to  the  above  is  the  theory  that  the  crown  was  of 
white-thorn,  anbcpiiic,  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  whitebriar  spoken 
of  below.      It  was  a  favorite  plant  for  adornment  in  nuptial 

White-Thorn. 

ceremonies,  being  regarded  as  or  good  omen,  a  charm 
against  all  evil.  Legend  and  tradition  had  consecrated  it  long  before 
the  Christian  era.  The  Greeks  held  the  biacic-thorn  to  be  prophylactic 
against  magic,  and  endowed  with  other  supernatural  properties,  as  the 
white-thorn  was  also  regarded  by  the  Romans,  among  whom  it  was  used 
for  marriage  torches.  Among  the  Germans  the  same  veneration  for  this 
tree  has  existed,  and  wishing-rods  ha\-e  been  made  from  it.'  In  Brittany 
and  in  some  parts  of  Ireland  it  is  thought  to  be  unsafe  to  gather  even  a 
leaf  from  certain  old  and  solitary  thorns,  which  grow  in  sheltered  hollows 
of  the  moorland,  and  are  the  fairies'  trysting-places;  but  no  evil  ghost 
dares  to  approach  the  white-thorn.' 

No  nuptial  bed  was  blessed  without  a  sprig  of  white-thorn.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  it  was  generally  believed  that  Christ's  crown  was  made  of 
it.  Sir  John  Mandeville  writes  concerning  it:  "  Then  was  our  Lord 
ylad  into  a  gardyn  .  .  .  and  there  the  Jewes  scorned  hym,  and 
maden  hym  a  crowne  of  the  braunches  of  Albespyne,  that  is  white-thorn, 
that  grew  in  the  same  gardyn,  and  settin  yt  on  hys  hcved. 
And  therefore  hath  the  white-thorn  many  virtues.  For  he  that  beareth 
a  braunche  on  hym  thereof,  no  thondre,  ne  no  maner  of  tempest  may 
dere  [hurt]  hym ;  ne  in  the  hows  that  yt  is  ynne  may  non  evil  ghost 
entre."  " 

'  S.  Clemens  Ale.xandrinus,  Pada^.,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  8. 

'  The  names  in  this  chapter  are  not  those  known  in  modern  botany,  but  taken  literally 
from  Bartholinus's  De  Coyoiia  Christi  Spinea. 
^  Leoprechting,  Li'chrain,  p.  29. 

•*  "  Sacred  Trees  and  Flowers,"  Quarterly  Rc"'ic-u\  July,  1S63,  pp.  231,  232. 
'  Kelly,  Curiosities  of  Indo-European  Tradition  and  Folk-Lore^  p.  182. 


470  History  of  the  Cross 

The  wild  rose  has  also  its  advocates,  and  among  other  plants  Bartho- 
linus  numbers  the  sweetbriar,'  and  it  would  be  pleasant  to  add  that 
Wild  Rose.  fragrant  plant  to  the  Christian  garden,  and  fancy  it  owed 

Sweetbriar.  its  swcetncss  to  the  sacrificc  of  sweet  savor  offered  for  all ; 
but,  as  Rosenmiiller  confesses  it  is  impossible  to  decide,  we  only  give 
a  few  of  the  many  presumed  to  have  been  thus  sanctified,  and  it  is  pos- 
sible that  we  have  even  confounded  some  of  these,  mistaking  different 
names  for  different  plants. 

It  is  certain  that  the  thorn  preserved  at  S.  Croce  at  Rome  is  as  long 
and  sharp  as  a  needle,^  and  in  all  probability  the  crown  was  composed  of 
some  plant  administering  to  the  agony  of  our  Lord.  We  believe  also, 
although  we  have  not  seen  them,  that  the  thorns  exhibited  at  S.  Chapelle 
at  Paris,  in  Spain,  and  in  other  places,  carry  out  this  idea. 

The  ziikkiin,   a   tree   resembling  our  plum    in  size   and    foliage,   has 

thorns  from  one  to  two  inches  long.      Probably  the  inyrobalaiuiui,   for 

which  Jericho  was  once  famous,  was  produced  by  the  fruit 

Zukkim. 

being  thrown  into  warm  water  and  the  oil  skimmed  off. 
This  balsam  was  the  substitute  for  the  famous  Balm  of  Gilead.  Zukkim 
has  also  been  supposed  to  be  the  tree  from  which  Christ's  crown  was 
made.  But  the  climate  of  Jerusalem  is  too  cold  for  it.  "  More  prob- 
ably," says  Stewart.  "  the  crown  was  of  balan,  which  grows  at  Jerusalem 
in  abundance."  ^ 

The  balan  is  a  small  bush  with  long  thorns,  and  a  leaf  like  a  miniature 
fern.  It  is  also  called  Spiiius  Christi ;  according  to  popular  superstition, 
the  crown  was  made  from  it;  others  say  of  the  twigs  of  the  buten  tree.* 
Various  other  plants  and  trees  claim  the  honor  of  furnishing  a  diadem 
for  the  Lord :  the  iberi,  or  water-cress,  Iicrba  hirsiita,  pulcgio,  penny- 
royal;  ainctkysti,  probably  violets;  also  the  oak  and  yew,  and  many 
others.  As  the  holly  occurs  frequently  in  hcraUlry,  it  has  been  sup- 
posed by  some  that  the  Crusaders  adopted  it  from  a  belief  that  the 
crown  was  made  from  it.' 

It  is  pleasant  to  turn  from  the  agonizing  realistic  fancies  of  the 
Middle  Ages  to  the  symbolic  representations  of  love  and  triumph  as 
exhibited   in   the  Catacombs.      Even   the  crown   of  thorns  is  sanctified 

'  B.irtliolimis,  De  Corona  Christi  Spinea,  sec.  2. 

^  Ibid.,  sec.  i.  ^  Iliid.,  p.  220. 

^  Slevvart,   Tent  and  Khan,  p.  373.  '  Newton,  Display  0/  Heraldry,  p.  140. 


Miscellaneous  471 

there,  for  we  find  the  soldiers  represented  as  erowning  our  Saviour  with 
flowers,  intiniatini^  tliat  the  thorns  have  ahx-ady  budded.  A  somewhat 
simiLir  sentiment  is  given  in  the  chapel  of  San  Silvestro  near  the  Cliurch 
of  the  Quatro  Incarnati  at  Rome.  An  angel  is  removing  the  crown  of 
thorns  to  replace  it  with  a  diadem  of  triumph.  A  like  device  is  in  a 
window  of  Luddington  Church,  Kent,  England. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  crown  of  thorns  was  most  higlily  venerated. 
Thirteen  thousand  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  pieces  of  gold  were  bor- 
rowed upon   it  by  the  barons  of  Romagna,  and,  failing  to  „ 

^  J  t>        '  '  o  Pecuniary  Value 

pay,  a  rich  Venetian,  Nicholas  Querini,  agreed  to  advance  oftheCrown. 
the  money  on  condition  that  if  it  were  not  repaid  at  an  early  day,  the 
crown  should  belong  to  Venice.  How  it  came  in  the  possession  of 
Baldwin,  King  of  Jerusalem,  is  a  matter  of  mystery.  He  may  have 
found  it  at  Jerusalem,  for,  according  to  some  accounts,  it  was  preserved 
in  the  Church  on  Mt.  Zion,  built  on  the  spot  where  our  Lord  washed 
the  apostles'  feet.  Bernard  the  Wise  visited  it  there  in  867.  It  is  to 
be  presumed  that  Baldwin  thought  he  was  in  possession  of  the  veritable 
crown,  for,  needing  money,  he  offered  it  to  S.  Louis  of  France,  who, 
delighted  at  the  prospect  of  securing  such  a  valuable  relic,  gave  him  one 
thousand  marks,  and  prepared  to  receive  the  crown  in  Paris      ,.  ^ 

^11  Its  Transfer  to 

with  all  due  honor.      Two  thousand  marks  were  expended  Paris, 

in  building  La  Sainte  Chapelle  as  a  fitting  shrine  for  this  and  a  small 
portion  of  the  Cross.  The  king  met  the  relic  at  Sens;  and,  barefooted 
and  bareheaded,  in  imitation  of  the  Emperor  Heraclius,  he  reverently 
bore  the  relic  to  Paris,  where  it  is  said  to  be  still  preserved.' 

Throughout  Europe  are  distributed  thorns,  claiming  to  have  come 
from  the  crown  worn  at  Calvarv,  sufficient,  as  Bartholinus  k,     .       ,„  , 

-  '  Number  of  False 

himself  confesses,   to  use  his  own  language,   "  to  make  a  Thorns. 

Trojan  bonfire."  ^ 

After  all,  the  true  odor  of  sanctity  which  embalms  the  crown  will  be 
found  in  the  teachings  which  early  Christian  commentators  have  deduced 
from  this  subject. 

The  general  symbolism  of  thorns  is,  of  course,  the  opposite  to  all 
things  sensuous  and  sensual,  hence  they  are  emblems  of  Symbolism, 
self-denial,   virginity,  and  chastity  °;  therefore  their  appropriateness  on 

'  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall ;  Lacroix,  Military  and  Religious  Life  in  the  middle  Ages, 
p.  375-  '  Bartholinus,  De  Corona,  etc.,  sec.  5.  '  Gretser,  lib.  i.,  c.ip.  12. 


472  History  of  the  Cross 

the  occasion  which  hallowed  them  for  all  time.  But  upon  this  special 
use  the  Fathers  pour  out  the  richness  of  their  metaphor.  "  This  dia- 
dem," says  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  "  surrounds  and  defends  the  friends 
of  the  church,  while  it  repulses  foes.  This  crown  is  of  flowers  to  them 
who  believe  and  glorify  Him,  but  it  makes  bloody  and  chastises  all  who 
do  not  believe."  Again,  the  same  author  says,  changing  the  meaning  of 
the  figure,  "  We  are  the  crown  of  unfruitful  thorns,  yet  we  are  placed 
with  the  head,"  /.  c,  the  Church.' 

S.  Cyril  compares  the  thorns  to  the  Gentiles  in  the  Church — who 
bring  forth  no  fruit,  but  are  fit  only  for  burning."  Commenting  on  the 
text  in  Isaiah  Ixiii.,  1-3:  "  Who  is  this  that  cometh  from  Edom,"  etc., 
this  was  the  interrogation  of  the  angels  who  had  seen  the  human  body 
of  marvellous  whiteness  given  by  the  blessed  Virgin,  but  were  amazed  at 
beholding  it  dyed  with  the  blood  of  the  Passion  of  the  Son  of  Man — 
Jesus  replies:  "  I  have  trodden  the  wine-press  [/'.  e.,  suffered  the  afflic- 
tion], borne  the  scourging,  weight  of  the  Cross  and  its  agony,  my  blood 
hath  stained  the  body  assumed  for  the  salvation  of  the  Church,  and 
therefore  since  then  the  robes  of  her  prelates  have  been  purple  [i.  e., 
scarlet],  in  victory  and  rejoicing,  as  exhibited  by  her  martyrs."  '  , 

The  general  idea,  however,  is,  that  as  in  the  fulfilment  of  the  curse  the 
earth  should  bring  forth  thorns  and  thistles,  so  Christ  in  bearing  our 
sins  should  be  crowned  with  thorns.'  All  this  goes  to  show  that  the 
crown  was  of  real  thorns,  not  a  soft  substitute,  as  the  more  gentle- 
hearted  commentators  might  wish. 

Of  course  there  are  many  superstitions  and  traditions  clustering 
around  this  part  of  our  subject.     We  select  one  as  a  speci- 

Superstitions 

Connected  with    men.      The  illustrious  Knights  of  S.  John  at  Rhodes  possess 

the  Crown.  r       i  i  i  i  n 

one  of  the  thorns  which   had   been   accustomed   to  flower 
on    Good    Friday.     This   is    testified    to   in    the    register    under    a    seal 

'  Clem.,  PicJa:;.,  lib.  ii.,  cap.  8. 

'  Beautifully  also  does  the  pious  Bosio  contrast  the  ancient  Gentiles,  who  while  feasting 
cried,  "  Crown  us  with  Roses  ere  we  die.  and  even  Solomon's  courtiers,  who  sprinkled  their  locks 
with  gold  dust,  with  the  Christians,  wdio  in  token  of  Him  who  was  crowned  with  thorns,  aban- 
don all  delicacies  and  luxury  and  all  deceitful  flatteries  and  all  vain  profit  and  transitory 
pleasures  of  this  age,  to  walk  through  thorns  in  the  way  of  tribulation  and  travail  and  weariness 
and  calamity." — La  Trionfanle  Crocf,  lib.  i.,  cap.  14. 

^  Ludolphus,  De  Vita  C/iris/e,  pt.  ii.,  cap.  62,  quoted  in  Bosio,  p.  8S. 

■*  Bosio,  La  Trionfanle  Croce,  lib.  i.,  cap.  14.  The  reader  will  be  amply  repaid  by  refer- 
ence to  Bosio,  Gretser,  and  Bartholinus,  not  only  for  theories  as  to  special  thorn,  but  also  for 
the  symbolic  explanations  of  the  Fathers. 


Miscellaneous  473 

of  the  Grand  Master,  Jacob  dc  Mill,  1457.  Of  late  years  this  miracle 
has  ceased.  "  Perhaps,"  says  Bosio,  "  on  account  of  tlie  sins  of  man, 
and  the  malevolence  and  depravity  of  the  age."  '  It  is  of  this  tliat  Sir 
Thomas  More,  in  his  decalot^ue  concerning  heresies,  writes:  "  Ye  might 
before  Good  Friday  every  yere,  till  within  this  five  yere  that  the  Turkes 
have  taken  the  towne,  have  seen  one  of  the  thorns  that  was  in  Criste's 
crowne,  bud  and  bring  forth  flowers  in  the  service  time,  if  ye  would 
have  gone  to  Rodes." 

Another  tradition  is  that  the  number  of  thorns  was  seventy-two, 
hence  the  petals  of  the  passion-flower  are  said  to  be  of  that  number.' 
S.  Cyril  sums  up  all:  "  The  crown  was  a  mystery,  for  it  was  composed 
of  sins,  but  it  was  a  dissolution  of  the  curse.  Hear  the  sentence  of 
Adam,  '  Cursed  be  the  ground,'  in  thy  labors,  '  thorns  and  tribulation 
shall  it  bring  forth  to  thee,'  therefore  Jesus  accepted  the  thorns  that  he 
might  loose  the  malediction." 

In  treating  of  this  part  of  our  subject  we  ought  not  to  forget  Baldwin, 
King  of  Jerusalem,  who  refused  to  wear  a  crown  of  gold  where  his  Lord 
had  worn  one  of  thorns.^ 

The  tonsure  would  not  be  mentioned,  but  for  the  reason,  according 
to  Germanus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  that  it  was  worn  in  remem- 
brance of  the  crown  of  infamy  placed  upon  the  head  of  origin  of  the 
Christ;  hence  it  is  now  used  as  an  honorable  mark  of  dis-  Tonsure, 

tinction  by  his  servants.  Bede  also  confirms  this  statement  as  to  its 
origin,  and  mentions  the  belief,  common  in  his  day,  that  S.  Peter  so 
shaved  his  head.'  Perhaps  the  apostle  may  have  done  so  as  a  sign  of 
penitence,  for  it  was  the  custom  of  the  Jews,  as  may  be  read  in  Isaiah 
and  Micah,  and  of  the  Egyptians,  Syrians,  and  other  nations,  to  make 
themselves  bald  as  a  sign  of  sorrow.  It  is  doubtful  if  the  tonsure  was 
used  before  the  fifth  century;  and  it  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  in 
the  eighth  century  by  the  African  monks  as  a  mark  of  penitence  and 
mortification. 

There  were  two  principal  forms  of  tonsure:  the  Greek  or  Pauline, 
shaving  the  head  from  the  front  to  the  crown  ;  and  the  Lat-  Forms  of 

in,  or  Petrine,  shaving  the  crown  alone."     The  ancient  Irish  Tonsure. 

and   British  clergy  clung  to  the  first  method;  hence  arose  the  disputes 

'  Bosio,  Ln   Trionfante  Croce,  lib.  i.,  cap.  14.  ■*  Bede.  Ecchs.  HiU.,  bk.  v..  chap.  xxii. 

'  Ibiil.,  lib.  ii.,  p.  164;  Gretser,  lib.  i..  cap.  II.        '  Walcott,  Sacred  Archaol.,  p.  5S1. 
^  Fuller,  Holy  War^  bk.  ii.,  chap.  vii. 


474  History  of  the  Cross 

between  them  and  the  Roman  missionaries.  The  ancient  tonsure  was 
not  a  shaven  crown ;  that  was  forbidden  lest  Christian  priests  should 
resemble  those  of  Serapis  and  Isis.  But  the  cutting  of  the  hair  to  a 
moderate  shortness  is  stated  in  the  rituals  to  denote  moderation,  the 
renunciation  of  the  world  and  its  vanities. 

At  the  baptism  of  the  converted  Jew,  which  takes  place  in  the 
baptistery  of  S.  John  Lateran  at  Rome,  on  the  Saturday  before  Easter, 
the  tonsure  is  made  on  the  proselyte  by  cutting  off  the  hair  in  the  shape 
of  a  cross. 


INDEX 


Abelard,  256,  335 

Abeneph,  H 

Aberdeen,  market  cross  at,  314 

Abgat'us,  1 84 

Abingdon,  Abbey  of,  457 

Abipoiies,  the,  use  of  the  cross  among,  42 

Abraham,  number  of  servants  of,  60 

Abyssinia,  the  cross  in,  g 

Acaciiis,  of  Mitylene,  205 

Accessory  vases,  25 

Achernar  (star),  454 

Achilles,  239 

Acre,  121,  458 

Adam,  traditionary  place  of  burial  of,  85,  gg  ; 

as  represented  in  art,  gg,   144 
Adaninanus,  337 
Adelsberg,  grotto  of,  460 
Adrian  I.,  Pope,  159 
--Egina,  silver  coins  first  struck  at,  375 
Aelfric,  the  Cafions  of,  401 
Africa,  the  cross  in.  2  ff 
Agathocles,  King  of  Sicily,  76 
Agnes,  Saint,  371,  372 
Ahasuenis,  sfe  Wandering  Jew 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  123  ;  the  Council  of,  397 
Alban,  Saint,  366 
Albertus  Magnus,  147 
Albigenses.  the,  443 
Albini,  William  de,  435 
Alcuin,  39g 
Aldhelm,  Saint,  3gg 
Alexander  I.,  of  Macedonia,  375 

the  Great,  punishes  by  crucifixion,  65 

II.,  Pope,  3S7 

III.,  38g 

Jannreus,  66 

Alexandra,  Princess  of  Wales,  255 
Alexandria,  the  cross  in,  4,  157 
Alfonso  the  Great,  of  Spain,  384,  385 
Alfred  the  Great,  received  a  fragment  of  the 

true  cross,  123  ;  right  of  sanctuary  granted 

by,  289 
Alon?o  de  Fonseca,  Archbishop  of  Seville,  123 
Alphonsus,  King  of  Lusitania,  legend  of,  log, 

no 
Alps,  wayside  crosses  in  the,  324,  327 
Altopascia,  the  battle  of,  386 
Amalingans,  the.  Indian  tribe,  293 
Amaterna,  Bishop  of,  76 


Ambones,  stone  pulpits,  197,  igg 

Ambrose,  Saint,  cited,  55,  56,  58,  70,  115,161, 
207,  356,  3gS,  412;  death  of,  331,  432 

America,  the  cross  in,  34^ 

Anion,  Egyptian  deity,  3,  4 

Amon-Ka,  Egyjitian  deity,  3,  5 

Ampfield,  wayside  cross  at,  326 

"  Ampney  Crncis,"  weeping  cross  of,  329 

Amyntas  II..  of   Macedonia,  375 

Ana,  Assyrian  deity,  16 

Andrew,  Saint,  traditions  concerning,  70.  71, 
75.  76.  157.  15S 

Andronicus  II.,  Pal^ologus,  Byzantine  em- 
peror. 435 

HI. ,435 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  3gl 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  the,  109,  123 

Anglo-Saxon  ritual,  the,  427 

Angurboda,  267 

Anne,   Queen   of  England,   and  the   "  King's 

Evil, '"438 

BuUen  (Boleyn),  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  283 

of  Cleves,  256 

A)iselm,  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  132, 

230,  23S,  243 
Anstis,  Garter  King-of-Arnis,  403 
Antioch,  120,  230.  345 
Antoninus,  Archbishop  of  Florence,  147 
Antony,  Saint.  51 
Anubis,  Egyptian  deity,  153,  181 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  the,  423 
Apple-tree,  legend  of  the,  g5 
Arabia,  the  cross  in,  ig 
Arabic  ritual,  the,  427 
Arausican  Synod,  the,  428 
Arbor  Infelix,  the.  154 
Ardennes,  the  Forest  of.  405 
.Vrdloc.  the  cross  at.  270 
Aretino,  Spinello,  3S5 
Arians,  the,  226 

Ariarathes,  King  of  Cappadocia,  66 
Ark,  symbolic  meaning  of  the  word,  61-63 
Armada,  the  Sjianish,  305 
Armenian  cross,  the,  .tiv  Cross 
Armorica,  the  cross  in,  27 
Aroundight,   the   sword  of    Launcelot    of   the 

Lake,  222 
Artemius.  the  Acts  of.  105 
Arthur.    King,   sword  of,  221  ;    the  Romance 

nf,  223.  224;   arms  of,  361  ;    364 
Arviragus,  King  of  the  Britons,  igo,  387 


475 


476 


Index 


Ascodrutes,  the,  an  heretical  sect,  441 

Asgard.  6,  2S 

Ashdown,  battle  of,  362 

Asia,  the  cross  in,  ^  ff 

Asia  Minor,  the  cross  in,  21 

Aspen,  legend  of  the,  93 

Assendon,  jtv  Ashdown 

Assisi,  409,  411,  412 

Assur-Nazir-Pal,  King  of  Assyria,  250 

Assyria,  the  cross  in,  15  ;  cylinders  found  in, 

17  ;  kings  of,  250 
Assyrian  triad,  the,  i5 
Astarle,  17,  21,  458,  467 
Athanasius,  Saint,  cited,  399,  439 
Athelstan,  123 
Athewold,  Abbot  of,  457 
Augustine,  Saint,  cited,   52,   53,   55,   58,   113, 

423,  424,  429  ;  use  of  processional  cross  by, 

22S,  237,  293 
Aurungzebe,  12 
Austerlitz,  battle  of,  123 
Austrasia,  Martin,  Duke  of,  434 
Austria,  crown  of,  218  ;  460 
Autun,  J.,  243 
Avellane  cross,  see  Cross 
Ayala,  Bishop  of  Galicia,  176 
Aztecs,  the,  of  Mexico,  37,  39,  41 


B 


Baldoe,  Ralph,  Dean  of  S.  Paul's,  296 
Baldur,  Scandinavian  deity,  2S,  94 
Bakhvin,  King  of  Jerusalem,  109,  471,  473 

II.,  121 

Balgovind,  the  herald  of  peace,  14 

Balkis,  Queen  of  Sheba,  87 

Balniung,  the  sword  of  Siegfried,  222 

Bannocklnirn,  battle  of,  24S 

Baptism,  of  Hre,  151,  152.  425  ;  rite  of,  among 

Mexicans,  37  ;  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  rite  of, 

422-426 
Barbee  cross,  see  Cross 
Barnabas,   Saint,  cited,  59 
Bartholinus,  Thomas,  470,  471 
Barton,  the  Rev.  Cutis,  Dean  of  Bristol,  315 
Basil,  Saint,  49,  1S6,  256 
Basolus,  or  Saint  Basle,  legend  of,  291,  292 
Bassos,  I.ucilius,  71 
Bath,  the  Knights  of,  422 
Battle  Abbey,  388 
Bayard,  Chevalier,  333 
Beccles,  Rood  of,  411 
Beck,  Anthony,  Bishop  of  Durham,  234 
Bede,  the  Venerable,  53,  113,  473 
Bedford,  Simon  de  Beauchamp,  Earl  of,  340 

Duke  of,  122 

Belenus,  one  of  the  Druidical  triad,  30 

Beleth,  Jean.  430 

Belgium,  340,  374 

Belus,  Assyrian  deity,  16 

Belzoni,  Giovanni,  5 

Benedict,  .Saint,  146 

II.,  I'ope,  147 

V',,  Pope,  244 

XIII.,  Pope,  214 

XIV.,  Pope,  209 


Benediction,  modes  of,  430-432 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  3S9 
Bennet,  Saint,  55 
Bernard,  Saint,  146,  147,  161 

the  Wise,  471 

Bernardino  da  Keltri,  459 
Bernardius,  Saint,  of  Siena,  459 
Bernardo  del  Carpio,  224 
Berners,  Juliana,  361,  363 

Berry,  ,  363,  366 

Bethesda,  pool  of,  legendary  origin  of,  87 
Bill,  Dr.,  305 

Bingham,  Joseph,  Aniitjiiities  of  the  Chi-istuin 
CJiiireh^  cited,  422,  423 

Bishop,  340  » 

Birkenhead,  Sir  John,  447,  44S 
Blackstone,  Sir  William,  434 
Black-vood's  Magazine,  cited,  455 

Bleys,  William,  345 

Bloxam,  ,  cited,  342 

Bogomiles,  sect  of  the,  442,  443 
Boism<.)nt,  Nicolas  de,  cited,  412,  413 
Boldetti,   Marcantonio,  155 
Boniilcar,  76,  77 
Bonaventura,  Saint,  74,  131 
Boniface,  Saint,  243 

v..  Pope,  289 

Burii  Homines,  sect  of  the,  443 

Bonner,  Dr.,  305,  407 

Bool;  of  Homilies,  the,  324 

Book  of  Kelts,  the,  270 

Bora  (or  de  Boren),  Catharine,  wife  of  Luther, 

224,  443.  444 
Borgia,  Cardinal,  175,  235 
Borromeo,  Charles,  Saint,  245 
Bosio,    Triumph  of  the  Cross,  cited,  60,  loi- 

103.  157.  165,  et  passim 
Boswell,  Armories  of  Honour,  cited,  368 
Bouillon,  Godfrey  de,  356,  358,  365,  387 
Bourges,  see  Churches 
Bo.xley,    "Rood  of   Grace"   of,  fraud  of,  302, 

410 
Brady,  John,  cited,  397 
Brahma,  10 

Brandano,  story  of,  132 
Brasses,   monumental,  33S-343 
Brawani,  Indian  deity,  10 
Brazen  serpent,  symbolism  of  the,  52^ 
Brecan,  Saint,  339 
Brewster,  Sir  David,  463 
Bridget,  Saint,  Revelations  of,  409 
Brigitta,  Saint,  74 
Britain,  burial  customs  in,  335  ;  kings  of,  361. 

302 
Brittnn,  John,  cited,  31 1 
Bromshold,  Monastery  of,  123 
Browne,  Richard,  391 

Sir  Tliomas,  402 

Bruce,  David,  457 

Bruntllesclii,  story  of  the  crucifix  of,  187 

Bruno,  Archbisliop  of  Cologne,  243 

Bucer,  Martin,  cited,  444 

Buddha,  10 

Bulgaria,  393,  442 

Bulgri,  sect  of  the,  443 

Burgundy,  Khvin  of,  434 

Burial,  early  customs  of,  135 


Index 


477 


Bury  St.  Edimuuls,  iqg,  256 
Buller,  Rev.  Albaii.  cited,  76 

Bishop,  of  Hristt)],  210 

Saimiel,   Hitdiln  as^  cited,  448,  466 

Byl)his,  coins  of,  2 

Byzantine  art,  174,  177,  1S4,  218 


Cacciaguida,  358 

Caduceus,  wand  of  Mercury,  6,  7,  239 

Cadurces,  the  Ponlitical  of,  426 

Cadvan,  Saint,  155,  264 

Cadwalla,  387 

Ca'sarius,  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Aries,  237,  240 

Caliier  et  Martin,  Melanges  d' Archaologie,  by, 

221 
Calderwood,  David,  314 
Caliburn,  see  Excaliliar 
Calliopius,  of  I'anipliylia.  76 
Calpurinus,  see  Stephaton 
Calvary,  legendary  origin  of  name,  S5 
Calvin,  Jolin,  cited.  125 
Camden,  William,  cited,  294,  295,  361 
Caiio,  Alonzo,  death  of,  333 
Canopus  (star),  454 
Canterbury,    Archbishops   of,    230,    232,    235, 

237,    238,    243,    296,    322,   372,    411,    434; 

cathedral  of,  236 

Capgrave.  ,  cited,  123 

Caracci,  Agostino,  82 

Carlstadt,  Andreas,  444 

Caroccio,  the,  standard  of  Florence,  386 

Cartaphilns,  see  Wandering  Jew 

Carthage,  the  Council  of,  428,  429 

Catacombs,   the,    152,  155,  15S,  166,  l63,  172, 

1S3.   189,  190.  239,  335,  339,  344,  354,  355, 

432,  470 
Cathari,  sect  of  the,  443 
Cathaiine,  Saint,  of  Siena,  414 
Cathedrals  and  Churches  ; 

Abingdon,  S.  Helen's,  457 

Amiens  Cathedral,  263 

Antwerp  Cathedral,  201 

Arezzo  Cathedral,   207,  208  ;  Church  of  S. 
Francesco,  96 

Assisi,   Church   of   S.    Damian,   409  ;    of   S. 
Chiara,  409 

Bar  Preston,  church,  259 

Beverley  Minster,  290 

Bourges  Cathedral,  49,  56,  395 

Bristol  Cathedral,  210,  315,  374  ;   Redcliffe, 
church,  374 

Bntteils,  church,  256 

Canterbury  Cathedral,  236  ;  S.  Augustine's, 
248 

Chartres,  Notre-Dame,  49,  56,  395 

Cologne  Cathedral,  263 

Constantinople,  Church  of  the  Holy  Apostles, 
193.  354  ;  of  S.  Sophia,  197,  199,  228 

Coventry,   Trinity  Church,  204 

Croy,  S.  Mary's,  340 

Croyland,  church,  290 

Doncaster,  church,  374 

Dublin,   Cathedral  of   the   Blessed   Trinity, 
248  ;  Christ  Church,  410,  411 


Durliam  Cathedral,  241,  253,  290,  388 

Eilinburyh.  S.  (Jiles's,  313 

Ely  Cathedral,   275 

Florence,  Santa  Croce,  96,  187,  459  ;  S. 
John,  386  ;  S.  Maria  Novella,  187  ;  San 
Marco,  181  ;  San  Miniato,  409  ;  S.  Trinita, 
409 

Hexham,  church,  290 

Isle  of  Man,  church,  275 

Jerusalem,  church  on  .Mt.  Zion,  471 

Lincoln  Cathedral,  235,  332 

Litclirteld  Cathedral,  245 

London,  S.  Andrew-under-Shaft,  374;  S. 
Martin's,  296;  S.  Paul's,  202,  294-29(1, 
458  ;  Grey  Friars',  302 

Luddington,  church,  471 

Lullingstone,  church.  56 

Malabar,  Church  of  S.  Thomas,  404 

Malaga  Cathedral,  407,  4rj8 

Milan,  Church  of  S.  Ambrogio,  207 

Mt.  Sinai,  Church  of  S.  Catharine,  197 

Naples,  Church  of  Madonna  del  Carmine, 
408  ;  of  S.  Domenico  .Maggiore,  408 

Nuremberg,  Church  of  S.  Laurence,  258 

Paris,  S.  Chapelle,  395,  470,  471  ;  S.  Denis, 
235,  395  ;  S.  Etienne-du-Mont,  202 

Pisa,  Dunino,  the,  385 

Preston  Church,  204,  259 

Rabston  Cathedral,  258 

Ravenna.  Baptistery,  the,  209  ;  Church  of  S. 
AiioUinare  in  Classe,  163,  395  ;  S.  Apol- 
linare  Nuovo,  189;  S.  Domenico,  407; 
.S.  Michael  the  Archangel.  161  ;  SS. 
Nazario  e  Celso,  157  ;  S.  Vitale,  207 

Rheiins,  Cathedral  of  Notre-Dame,  49,  199, 
395 

Rome,  Church  of  S.  Agnes,  371  ;  San  Cle- 
mente,  161,  166, 177,  183,  230  ;  SS.  Cosma 
and  Damiano,  168;  Santa  Croce,  470; 
Santa  Croce  in  Gerusalemme,  119,  126, 
132,  136-139;  S.  Gregurio,  158;  S.  John 
l.ateran,  47,  161,  432,  474;  S.  i\Iaria  Cos- 
medin,  159;  S.  Maria  Maggiore,  159  ;.S. 
Paolo  Fuori  delle  Mura,  409;  S.  Peter's, 
119,  128,  158,  168,  183,  230,  263  ;  Quattro 
Incarnati,  471  ;  San  Silvestro,  471  ;  S. 
Stefano,  172  ;  S.  Pudentiana,  159;  Vati- 
can, the.  Chapel  of  S.  Laurence  in,  208  ; 
S.  ^'enantius,  Oratory  of,  251 

Ropsley,  St.  Peter's,  202 

Rouen  Cathedral,  263 

Salisbury  Cathedral,  340 

Sens,  Church  of  S.  Stephen.  121 

Seville  Cathedral,  123 

Strasburg  Cathedral,  263 

Stratford-on-Avon,  Church  of  the  Trinity,  96 

Tepekennan  Cliurch.  197 

Tours,  Churcli  of  S.  Clement,  374 

Treves,  Lielifrauenkirche.  259 

Troves,  Church  of  S.  Madeline,  g6  ;  S. 
Martin-es-Vignes,  96  ;  S.  Nizier,  gO  ;  S. 
Pantaleon,  96 

Venice,  Church  of  S.  Patriarcale,  186 

Vienna,  Church  of  S.  Maurice,  201 

Westminster  Cathedral,  445 

Wincliester  Cathedral,  245 

York  .Minster,  209,  290,  340 


478 


Index 


Cavalcaselle,  Giovanni,  159 

Cavalliiii,  Pietro,  2S1 

Cave  temples  of  India,  12,  13  ;  of  Ireland,  32, 

34  ;  of  Mexico,  37 
Caxton,  William,  cited,  92,  93  ;  29S 
Caylus,  Count,  431 
Cecrops,  467 

Central  America,  the  cross  in,  34 
Ceolfrid,  Abbot  of  Wearmouth.  237 
Champlain,  Lake,  appearance  of  cross  in  clouds 

on.  III 
Chandi  Sewu,  the  thousand  temples,  13 
Chandos,  Sir  John,  363 
Charing  Cross,  287,  288 
Charlemagne,   122,   123  ;  sword  of,   123,  221  ; 

crown  of,  215-217  ;  230,  331,  35S,  3yb 
Charles  the  Bold,  of  Burgundy,  434 
I.,  of  England,  210,  2S7,  307,  315,  43S, 

445 

II.,  of  England,  308,  437,  438 

v..  Emperor  of  Germany,  2S3 

X.,  of  France,  199 

Chaucer,  Komaunt  of  the  Rose,  cited,  364 

Cheapside  Cross,  2S3— 2S7.  295 

Cheddar,  market  cross  at,  311 

Cheops,  17,  19 

Chepman's  Cross,  314 

Chichester,    256,   3S9  ;    market  cross  at,   311, 

315 

Chichimecs,  the,  of  Mexico,  39 

China,  the  cross  in,  13,  134.  394 

Chosroes,  King  of  Persia.  90-93,  120,  207,  3S4 

Chrism,  administration  of,  428 

Christ,  as  represented  in  art,  172-179,  1S3  ; 
portraits  of,  184,  1S5  ;  types  of,  48-50,  55, 
74.  144,  146.  153.  if'7,  168,  1S2,  355,  359  ; 
instruments  of  the  Passion  of,  133  ;  mono- 
grams of,  188-192 

Christianity,  traces  of,  before  Christ,  i  ff ; 
symbolized  by  the  cross,  found  among 
heathen  nations,  45 

Chrysostom,  Saint,  97,  113,  I15,  117,  134,  154, 
155,  186,  256.  324,  371  ;  cited,  135,  153, 
361,  416,  417,  429,  431,  433  ;  first  uses  pro- 
cessional cross,  226,  228 

Ciampini,  Giovanni,  168,  172 

Ciborium^  the,  212 

Cicero,  cited,  154 

Cid  Ruy  Diaz,  of  Bivar,  swords  of,  221,  222 

Cigoli.  Ludovico  da,  and  his  model,  412 

Cimabue,  Giovanni,  133,  176,  207 

Circassia,  wayside  crosses  in,  324 

Cirencester,  weeping  cross  at,  329 

Cissa.  457 

Civitali,  Matteo,  184 

Clare,  Saint,  of  Montefalco,  414 

Clarke,  Dr.  Adam,  20,  77,  95,  468 

,  Charles,  401 

Claudian,  219 

Claudius,  Em]ieror  of  Rome,  190 

,  Bishop  of  Turin,  400,  442 

Clavijo,  the  battle  of,  368 

Clemens  Alexaudrinus,  469  ;  cited,  472 

Clement,  Saint,  of  Alexandria,  189 

IV.,  Pope,  362 

VII.,  Pope,  132 

Clermont,  Council  of,  197,  291 


Clovis  I.,  King  of  the  Franks,  and  the  "  King's 

Evil,"  435,  458 
Cluny,  .\bbot  of,  256 

Cnut,  King  and  Patron  Saint  of  Denmark,  255 
Coinage,  place  of  the  origin  of,  disputed,  375 
Coins,  of  jEgina,  375  ;  armorial  bearings  on, 

380;  of   Byblus,  21  ;  of  Chalcedon,   21  ;  of 

Cilicia,  21 ;  of  Constantine  156.  376-378,  432  ; 

of  Corinth,  22  ;  of  Crete,  22  ;  of  Crispus,  15O, 

377  ;  cross  on,  375,  3S0 ;  of  Cyprus,  21  ;  of  De- 
cius,  190;  of  Edward  III.,  3S0  ;  of  Egbert, 
380;  of  GallaPlacidia,  154,  157  ;  of  the  Gauls, 
27  ;  of  Greek  type,  27  ;  of  Gratianus,   156, 

378  ;  of  Henry  I.,  380  ;  of  Henry  III.,  380; 
of  Ileraclius,  3S0  ;  of  Plerod  the  Great,  189  ; 
of  Honoriiis,  37S  ;  of  Jovian,  154,  156,  378  ; 
of  Justinian,  37S.  379;  of  Justinianus  II., 
3S0  ;  in  Mexico,  3S1  ;  monogram  on  Eastern, 
i8g  ;  of  Nerva,  377  ;  of  North  America,  43  ; 
of  Phocas,  215,  3S0  ;  Phoenician,  375;  of 
Ptolemy,  108,  188  ;  of  Samaria,  59  ;  Sido- 
nian,  375  ;  of  Syracuse,  27  ;  of  Theodosius, 
iSfj.  356.  378  ;  of  Valentinian,  156.  378  ;  of 
Valentinianus,  15b;  of  Valentinianus  III., 
378  ;  of  Vibius  Pansa,  26  ;  of  the  Volcas 
Tectosages,  27  ;  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
467 

Colatla,  the  sword  of  the  Cid,  222 

Coleritlge,  Samuel,  cited,  187,  459 

Colhuas,  the,  of  Mexico,  39 

Collier,  ,  cited,  23S 

Cologne,  Council  of.  212  ;  239.  243,  263,  289 

Colonibiere  (.Marc  de  Vulson),  97,  3O3 

Columba,  Saint,  337 

Compagni,  Dino,  cited,  no 

Comyn,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  405 

Confirmation,  the  rite  of,  428 

Constable,  Marmaduke,  277 

Constantine,  Empenn-,  conversion  of,  104-108  ; 
coins  of,  107,  376-378,  432  ;  the  Labarnm 
of,  189,  226,  377,  378,  383,  384  ;  letter  of, 
116  ;  use  of  crosses  Ijy,  15b,  15S  ;  170,  205, 
264  ;  founds  churches,  136,  168,  193,  197 

Copronymus,  443 

Poganatus,  3S0 

Constantinople,  story  of  fragment  of  the  True 
Cross  in,  119-121,  156;  Councils  of,  15b, 
157.  433,  434  ;  193.  I99,  207,  228,  230,  2()4, 
354,  367,  389,  392,  398,  435,  473  ;  the  liturgy 
of,  422,  423,  439  ;  the  ritual  of,  427 

Constantius.  coins  of,  107,  377 

Porphyrogenitus,  21S 

Convulsionaries,  the,  80 

Coptic  ritual,  the,  427 

Cornwall,  standard  crosses  in,  265 

Cosin,  John,  Bi.shop  of  Durham,  246 

Cosma,  .Saint,  144 

Cossali,  Andrea,  454 

Cotton,  John,  391 

Councils,  of  Carthage,  428,  429  ;  of  Clermont, 
rc)7,  291  ;  of  Cologne,  212  ;  of  Constanti- 
no|ile,  157,  170,  433.  434  ;  of  Ephesus,  157, 
205  ;  of  Lateran,  230  ;  of  Maycnce,  323  ;  of 
Nica;a,  185,  399,  400  ;  of  Orange,  289  ;  of 
Orleans,  323  ;  of  Toledo,  240  ;  of  Tours, 
193,  197,  205,  208,  209;  in  "  I'rullo,"  172, 
429 


Index 


479 


Courtney,  William,  Arclibishoj)  of  Canterbury, 
296 

Coventry,  market  cross  at,  309 

Mysteries,  the,  127,  130 

Covertlale,   Bishop,  118,298 

Cox,  Bishop,  cited,  444 

Cranmer,  Archbishop,  246,  298,  401 

Creeks,  the,  Indian  tribe,  45 

Cremation,     the    custom     of,    among    ancient 
natioiis,  335 

Crimea,  the,  197,  393 

Crispus,  son  of  Constantine,  156,  377 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  and  the  "  King's  Evil,"  437 

Crosier,  the,  definition  of,   236  ;  use  of,   237  ; 
of  S.  Patrick,  247,  248 

Cross,  the,  absolution,  256,  335,  365,  366; 
acrostics,  in  form  of.  415,  4(12-465  ;  altar, 
205-211  ;  amulets,  used  as,  5,  18,  42  ;  Arme- 
nian, 355  ;  avellane,  368  ;  barbee,  369  ;  black, 
use  of,  322  ;  buns,  467-468  ;  Calvary,  or 
Cross  of  Passion  (Latin  Cross),  22,  355, 
365,  366  ;  cercellee  or  ancree,  369 
Christian  symbolizatiun  of,  47.  74,  156,  168, 

175,  176,  214,  215.  242.  355 
Churchvtird,   reasons  for,  344,  345  ;  at  Mar- 
cillac,  348  ;  at  S.  Projet,  348  ;  at  Saillans, 

346 

Coftins,  use  of,  on,  336 

Coins,  use  of,  on,  27,  153,  156,  375.^,  380; 
proverbial  allusions  to,  381,  382 

Consecration,  257-260 

Countries  and  cities  whose  flags  bear  the. 
392  ;  crowns,  use  of,  on,  215-220;  creep- 
ing to,  ceremony  of,  402,  403 ;  early 
Christian  art,  representation  of,  in,  151- 
166,     214  ;     colors      of,     in       art,      394, 

395 
Early  use  of,  in  Abyssinia,  9  ;  in  Alexan- 
dria. 157;  in  Arabia,  19;  in  Armorica, 
27  ;  in  Asia  Minor,  21  ;  in  Assyria,  15  ; 
in  Britain,  30-32,  155:  in  Ciiina,  13;  in 
Cholula,  37  ;  in  Cozumel,  40  ;  in  Cuzco, 
42  ;  in  Denmark,  28  ;  in  Egypt,  2-8  ;  in 
Etruria,  26  ;  in  France,  27,  28  ;  in  Greece, 
22  ;  in  Iceland,  29  ;  in  India,  9  ff ;  in 
Ireland,  32  ;  in  Italy,  22  ff ;  in  Japan, 
14;  in  Java.  13;  in  Kamchatka,  15;  in 
Mesopotamia,  19;  in  Mexico,  34;  in 
New  Granada,  41  ;  in  Nicaragua,  36 ; 
in  North  America,  43  ;  in  Oajaca,  36  ;  in 
Pacific  Islands,  45  ;  in  Palestine,  19  ;  in 
Paraguay,  42  ;  in  Patag<inia,  42  ;  in  Per- 
sia, 15  ;  in  Pern,  41  ;  in  Phoenicia,  2i  ;  in 
Pompeii,  154  ;  in  Rome.  26  ;  in  .Sicily,  27  ; 
in  Sweden,  28 
Epitaphs,  associated  with.  155.  156 
Feasts,  of  Exaltation  of,  93,  120,  405.  411  ; 
of  the  Invention  of.  90,  119;  of  the  Sus- 
ception  of,  121  ;  of  Adoration  of,  398^ 
Fiery,  use  of,  30  ;  fleury.  or  flory,  367 
Fragments  of  the  True,  in  Jerusalem,  90, 
93,  119,  120:  in  Rome,  90;  in  Constanti- 
nople, 119,  120;  in  France,  121-123.  458; 
in  Spain,  123  ;  in  England.  123.  124  ;  in 
Ireland.  124  ;  in  Armenia,  125  ;  multipli- 
cation of.  117,  122,  124,  125  ;  in  Scotland, 
456 


Furchce,  370;  Fylfot,  11,  13,  14,  22,  26,  28, 
29,  153;  gems,  engraved  on,  15,  19,  26, 
i8r  ;  Greek,  37,  44,  353-355.  357,3('2 

Headstone,  materials  and  forms,  of,  336,  338  ; 

Heathen  signification  of  the,  40,  415  ;  her- 
aldry, use  of,  in,  360-374  ;  horn-books, 
use  of,  in,  447,  448  :  humettce  or  ancettee, 
369:  im|irinted  on  the  body,  151,  152,425; 
incised,  335.  339  ;  inhabited,  the,  358-359 

Instrument  of  punisltment,  used  as,  41 ,  (i\ff; 
66,  73  ;  supposed  inventor  of  punishment 
by,  64  ;  ignominy  of  death  on,  67  ;  borne 
by  condemned  to  place  of  execution,  69  ; 
usual  height  of,  70  ;  duration  of  life  on, 
75  ;  customs  concerning  the  disposition 
of,  after  crucifixion,  77.  117,  tig,  120  ;  in- 
scription of  crimes  affixed  to.  134 

Jerusalem  (proper),  364,  365 

Landmark,  321-323  ;  stump,  322 

Legends  of,  83-100,  356 

Lorraine  or  Jerusalem,  356,  357  ;  of  Lotha- 
rio, 174.  175,  177  ;  Luther's  use  of,  225, 
443  ;   Maltese,  16,  17,  37.  41,  368 

Market,  early  form  of,  308,  311  ;  of  Aber- 
deen, 314;  of  Cheddar,  311  ;  of  Chiches- 
ter, 311  ;  of  Coventry,  309,  311  ;  of 
Devizes,  315-316;  of  Dundee,  314;  of 
Edinburgh,  312-314  ;  of  Gloucester.  311  ; 
of  Malmesbury,  3TI  ;  of  Perth,  314;  of 
Prestonjians,  314  ;  of  Stourhead.  315  ;  of 
Wells,  319;  Winchester  ButterCross,  312  ; 
various  uses  of,  319^ 

Memorial,  in  Ireland,  275  ;  in  Isle  of  Man, 
275,  279  ;  in  Wales.  275  ;  at  Croyland,  277. 
27S  ;  mentioned  by  Shakespeare,  276,  277  ; 
the  Eleanor  crosses,  281-2SS,  314 

Milriue,  369;  miraculous  bannersof  the,  3S4- 
3S9  ;  miraculous  powers  of,  41,  165,  404 
ff ;    moline,  368 

Aliraeulous  appearances  of,  103  ff ;  to  Con- 
stantine, 106-10S  ;  related  by  S.  Cyril, 
109;  in  England,  109-112;  in  Germany, 
109 ;  in  Jerusalem,  109,  in;  in  Pales- 
tine, 109;  in  Portugal,  109,  no;  at  Flor- 
ence, no;  in  Poland,  in;  beliefs  con- 
cerning, 112  ;   to  Julian  the  Apostate,  165 

Mortuary,  in  Greece,  338 ;  in  Island  of 
Guernsey,  338  ;  in  Normandy,  337 ;  in 
Russia,  337-338  ;  in  Tyrol,  338 

A^ature,  as  found  in,  minerals,  460,  462  ; 
sand,  463  ;  snow-crystals,  463  ;  tear-drops, 
463  ;  vegetable  life,  4O2 

Neigle,  266 ;  ordeal  of  the,  395-397  ;  or- 
namented, 157,  163,  165,  166;  pall,  56, 
353.  370  ;  pamphlets  ridiculing  objections 
to  the,  cited,  44S,  450;  papal  or  triple- 
barred,  235,  357 ;  patonce.  367 ;  patri- 
archal, double-barred,  or  Cross  of  Lor- 
raine, 212,  234,  356,  367  ;  pattee  or  formee, 
6.  16,  2og,  36S 

Pectoral,  172,  175  ;  antiquity  of,  250,  251  ; 
symbol  of,  251  ;  of  Queen  Dagmar  and 
the  Princess  Alexandra,  254-256 

Pommee,  pomelle,  or  pomettee,  36S  ;  as  a 
posture  in  prayer,  432-433  ;  potent,  364  ; 
of  Prester  John,  3S9  ;  primatical  reception 
of,  237^ 


48o 


Index 


Cross — Continued 

Preaching,  origin  of,  2g3  ;  uses  of,  294-302  ; 
S.  Paul's  the  most  noted,  294-296  ;  print- 
ing denounced  at  S.  Paul's,  29S  ;  fraud  of 
Rood  of  Boxley  exposed  at  S.  Paul's,  302, 
410  ;  celebrated  preachers  at  S.  Paul's,  303 
-307;  kings  at  S.  Paul's,  307  ;  S.  Paul's 
demolished,  307 
Processional,  226-235  ;  used  by  S.  Chrysos- 
tom,  226  ;  by  S.  Augustine,  22S  ;  right  of 
carrying,  granted  by  popes,  230  ;  crux 
stationatis,  230  ;  disputes  about  carrying, 
232  ;   Cardinal  Wolsey's,   234  ;    color  of, 

235 

Puritan  opposition  to  the,  441,  444,  445  ;  rel- 
iquary, 209,  235,  434,  458  ;  Resurrection 
or  triumphal  (hasta  longa),  154,  355,  356  ; 
S.  tieorge's,  the  device  of  England,  363, 
3S7,  388,  3gr,  392,  448  ;  S.  James's,  367, 
368  ;  S.  Julian's,  366  ;  S.  Martin's,  337  ; 
S.  Patrick's,  3SS  ;  S.  Vigean's,  266;  Sal- 
tire  or  S.  Andrew's,  41,  56,  60,  75,  263, 
353.  361,  3C'2,  366,  3S8,  391,  425,  431, 
448 

Sanctuary,  289-292 

Sceptre,  first  surmounted  by,  215  ;  signa- 
tures, used  in,  15-17.  433-435,  45°; 
Southern,  451  ff ;  on   standards,  338  ff- 

393 

Sign  of,  in  coronation,  20,  60,  432  ;  in  or- 
dination, 20,  60,  431-432;  commutation 
of  death  sentence,  22;  antiquity  of,  157 
ff ;  used  at  death,  331  ;  in  Northern 
Europe,  406  ;  used  by  early  Christians, 
415  ;  symbolism  of,  418,  419  ;  methods  of 
making,  41S-421  ;  in  bajjlism,  422-426; 
in  confirmation,  426-429;  in  benediction, 
43f_>-452  ;  in  ])rayer,  432,433  ;  in  touching 
forthe  "  King's  Evil,"  435-43S  ;  power  of, 
over  demons,  438-440 

Spire  and  Gnhle,  261-263 

Standard,  of  Arnold  von  Winkelried,  272  ; 
of  Meemskerk,  272,  274;  in  Ireland,  267, 
26S.  272  ;  in  Isle  of  Man,  267  ;  of  Neigle, 
266  ;  of  Scandinavian  origin,  267  ;  orna- 
mentation of,  270  ;  of  Monasterboice, 
270 

Street,  22J 

Superstitions  concerning,  ^o\ff:  in  Ireland, 
404  ;  in  Denmark,  406,  407;  in  Norway, 
406  ;  in  Great  Britain,  407 

Tau,  or  Cross  of  Egypt,  2,  11,  17,  18,  22.  36, 
40,  45,  47,  58/59.  153.  iSr,  191,  347, 
353.  3(^5.  36^'.  397.  450  ;  of  Toleao,  458  ; 
traditionary  discovery  of,  by  S.  Helena, 
114-119;  traditionary  material  of,  93- 
103 

Title  of ,  115,  116,  136,  138 

Types  of,  in  the  Old  Testament,  46-57  ;  in 
the  New  Testament,  57-60 ;  in  nature, 
55,  f'O^f 

Use  of,  after  death,  334  ;  use  of,  in  convey- 
ing property,  435  ;  various  forms  of,  2,  3, 
5,  6,  7,  10,  II,  25S,  259,  353,  373,  384 

IVayside,  origin  of,  324  ;  in  the  Alps,  324, 
327  ;  in  (."ircassia,  324;  in  Italy,  32S  ;  in 
Soutli  America,   328  ;   in   S])ain,    32S  ;  in 


Wallachia,  324 ;  referred  to  by  Keble, 
326  ;  by  Scott,  325—326  ;  by  Shakespeare, 
325  ;  suicides  buried  at,  329 
Weeping,  of  "  Ampney  Crucis,"  329  ;  at 
Caen,  329  ;  at  Shrewsbury,  329  ;  proverbs 
in  regard  to,  32S 

Cross-bill,  legend  of  the,  loi 

Crossley.  John,  246 

Crowe,  Joseph  A.,  159 

Crown  of  thorns,  the,  468.  469,  471-473 

Crowns,  earliest  mention  of,  163,  165  ;  of 
Austria,  21S  ;  of  Charlemagne,  215-217  ;  of 
England,  217,  21S  ;  of  Hungary,  21S,  219; 
of  Reccesvinthus,  219,  220 

Croydon,  Vicar  of,  298 

Croyland,  story  of  cross  of,  277.  27S 

Crucifix,  the,  in  early  Christian  art,  167- 
187,  270;  the  black,  of  Venice,  and  of 
Melrose,  186,  458  ;  made  by  Nicodemus, 
184,  185,  458;  used  by  Luther,  444  ;  natu- 
ral, in  grotto  of  Adelsberg,  460 

Crucifixes,  miraculous,  404,  40S-411 

Crucifixion,  early  forms  of,  64-78  ;  Guevara's 
account  of  Christ's,  73,  74  ;  of  S.  Peter, 
75  ;  of  S.  Andrew,  76  ,  Jewish  customs  re- 
lating to,  77,  117  ;  sufferings  caused  by,  78, 
79  ;  voluntary,  79-Si  ;  of  children  by  the 
Jews,  81,  82  ;  customs  relating  to,  134  ;  re- 
presentations of  the,  in  art,  llbff,  131,  140- 
147,  170,  173-176,  179-1S1,  183 

Cruciform  churches,  origin  of,  379  ;  mounds, 
43-45;  temples,  12,  13,  32,  34;  ornaments, 
212-225  ;   sepulchres,  37,  38 

Crusades,  the,  120,  322,  362,  370.  392 

Crux  iinsata,  the,  3,  5,  T  ff,  13,  16,  17,  21,  43 

coniinissa,  the,  353 

gam  mala,  the,  11 

immissa,  353 

longa  or  hasta,  355 

stationalis,  or  processional,  214,  230 

Cufic  characters,  19 

Cullen,  Dr.,  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  274 

Curtana,  the  sword  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
222 

Curtis,  Frate  Cornelius,  cited,  1S3-185 

Curzon,  ,  138 

Cuthbert,  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
245.  322 

,  Saint,  of  Durham,  the  standard  of,  253, 

3S8,  389 

Cylinders,  four  classes  of,  17,  24 

Cyprian,  Saint,  59.  70,  176 

Cyprus.  15,  132,  458 

Cyril,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  cited,  109, 
112,  113,  117,  429,  43S,  472;  Catechetical 
Lectures  of,  117 

Cyrus,  65 

D 

Dagmar,  Queen  of  Denmark,  cross  of,  254 
Damascenus,  S.  John,  47,  74 
Damascus,  121 
Damian,  Saint,  144 
Daniietta,  120,  121 

Danebrog,  the,  national  standard  of  Denmark, 
385 


Index 


481 


Daniel,  traditionary  tomb  of,  15 

Dante,  Divina  Commedia,  cited,  181,  1S4,  358, 

359.  452-455 
Danube  River,  324 
Davenport,  Rev.  James  R.,  Ill 

Richard,  391 

David    I.,   of    Scotland,   legend    nf,    and    the 

miraculous   crucifix,   405  ;     at   IJattle  tif  the 

Standard,  38S  ;  death  of,  456 
Davy,    Adam,     'J'lte  Pylgiymagcs  of  the  holi 

iaiiii,  cited,  327 
De  Carbonel,  Bishoji,  crobier  of,  248 
Decius,  Emjieror.  iqo 
Demetrius,  IMialereus,  279 

Saint,  of  Rostofl,  240 

Denmark,    the  cross  in,   28  ;    kings   of,    254, 

255  ;   miraculous  standards  of,  385 
De  Portal,  cited,  394 
Devizes,  market  cross  at,  315,  316 
Didron,  A.  N.,  cited,  419 
Dieppe,   256 

Diocletian,  Emperor,  155,  385 
Diogenes  Laertius,  467 
Dionysius,  cited,  423,  431 

of  Syracuse,  22 

Dismas,  see  Thieves 

Doane,  Bishop,  of   Albany,   pastoral  staff  of, 

246,  248 
Docetre,  the,  118 
Doddridge,  Dr.,  cited,  in 
Domitian,  Emperor.  190 

Donatello,  story  of  the  crucifix  of,  187  ;   333 
Donne,  Dr.  John,  hymn  of,  100  ;  seal  of,  225  ; 

304 
Dorchester,  Bishop  of,  244 
Dowsing,  William,  journal  of,  cited,  446,  447 
1  )resden  Codex ^  the,  36 
Drontheim,  29 
Drouyn,  M.  Leo,  cited,  348 
Druids,  the,  30-32 
Ducange,  C.,156 

Du  Guesclin,  Constable  of  France,  433 
Diilia,  the  worship  of,  400 
Dumachas,  see  Thieves 
Dundee,  market  cross  at,  314 
Dun-Edin's  Cross,  312,  313 
Dunfermline,  456 
Dunstan,  Saint,  409 

Du  Paix,  ,  37 

Duppa,  Bishop,  225 

Durandus,     Gulielmus,     cited,     203,    243,   258 

et  passim 


Eastlake,  Lady,  cited,  153,  154,  172 
Eastward  Iloe,  cited,  328,  329 
Edgar,  Saxon  King  of  England,  435 
Edinburgh,  Mercat  cross  of,  312-314  ;  405 
Editha,  wife   of   Edward   the  Confessor,   218, 

401 
Edmondson,  Joseph,  363 
Edmund    Ironside,   .Saxon   King  of   England, 

362,  456 
Edmundsbury,  landmark  crosses  at,  321 
Edward  the  Confessor,  the  crown  of,  217,  21S  ; 

the  sword  of,  222  ;  the   tomb   of,   244,  2S4  ; 


coat-of-arms  of ,  362  ;  401  ;  and  the  "  King's 
Evil,"  436 
the  Elder,  276 

\.  of  England,  281-28S,  308,  456,  466 

W.  of  England,  295,  466 

in.  of  I-"ngland,   296,  315,  363,  380,  456 

IV.  of  England,  291,  298,  300,  301,  315, 

374 
VI.    of    England,    202,    246,    2S3,    305  ; 

prayer-book  of,  246,  421,  424,  427-429 
Egbert,  Archbishop  of  Treves,  243 
King  of  England,  362 

King  of  Kent,  380 

of  York,  the  Pontifical  of,  426 

Egypt,  the  cross  in,  'iff,  394 
Egyptian  triad,  the,  3 
Ekler-tree,  legend  of  the,  94 
Eleanor  Crosses,  the,  281-288,  3x4 
Elizabeth,  Queen    of  England,   246,  302,  305, 

307,  315,  322,  410,  411.  436,  445 

Queen  of  Hungary,  219 

Endicott,  John,  cuts  the  cross   from    banner, 

389,  391,  450 
England,    109-II1,   217,    218,    3SS,    422,  427, 

444 
Enkolpia,  or  pectoral  crosses,  251,  253 
Eiinemoser,  Joseph,  cited,  412-414 
Enrich,  the  nun,  413 
Ephesus,  Council  of,  157,  205  ;  375 
— —  Saint,  385 
Ephraini,  Saint,  49,  55,  60 
Ephrem,  Saint,  cited,  418 
Epiphanius,  cited,  1S2,  189 
Erasmus,  cited,  124 
Eribert,  Archbishop  of  Milan,  386 
Estney,  John,  Abbot  of  Westminster,  245 
Ethelbert,   King  of  Kent,  and   S.   Augustine, 

228,  237,  293  ;  probable  builder  of  S.  Paul's 

Church,   295 
Ethelbrerl,  King  of  Northumberland,  275 
Ethelreda,  Saint,  275 
Ethiopic  ritual,  the,  427 
Etruria,  the  cross  in,  26 
Eucharius,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Treves,  243 
Eugenius  (IV.),  Pope,  139 

Saint,  433 

Europe,  the  cross  in,  22^ 

Eusebius,  cited,  105,  116,  156,  158,  205 

Eustace,  Saint,  the  legend  of,  406 

Evagrius,  207 

Evangelists,  symbols  of,  in  early  art,  174 

Evangelium,  or  Evaiigeliajiiim,  47,  170,  172 

Evelyn,  John,  cited,  no,  437 

Excalibar,  Excalberd,   or  Caliburn,  the  sword 

of  King  Arthur,  221-224 


Farno,  King  of  Media,  64 

Farrington,  Dame  Elizabeth,  312 

Fausta,  wife  of  Constantine,  156 

Favine,  Andrew,  436 

Fejervary,  Herr,   36 

Felicite,  Sister,  voluntary  crucifixion  of,  80 

Feroher,  the,  or  winged  globe,  18 

Fiery  cross,  the,  see  Cross 


48: 


Index 


Filliam,  Saint,  crosier  of,  24S 

Fiiichue,  Saint,  247 

Flavia  Eupheniia,  Empress,  251 

Flecl<noe,    Richard,   cited,   Diariiin,   94,   95  ; 

Enigmatical  Characters,  44S 
Flenry  cross,  see  Cross 
Florence,  no,  131,    144,   170,    176,   iSi,   207, 

386,  4og,  459 
Foix,  Gaston  de,  407 
Fomalliaut  (star),  454 
Forres,  cross  at,  276 
Fosbroke.  Tlionias,   342 
Fosser,  Jolin,  Prior  of  Durliam,  388 
Fossors,  tlie  early  Christian,  26 
Foustain  le  Blanc,  38S 
Fra  Angelico  da  Fiesole,  144-147,  208 
France,  the  cross  in,  27  ;   326,  340,  346 
Francesca,  Pietro  della,  96 
Francis,   Saint,  of  Assisi,  legend  of,  409,  411, 

412 
Frascati,  463 
Frederick,  of  Saxony,  414 

Barbarossa,  Emperor,  120 

IV.,  Emperor,  219 

VII.,  of  Denmark,  255 

Fremont,  Colonel,  263 

Frithstool,  the,  2go 

P'roissart,  Jean,  cited,  363 

Fructuosiis,  the  martyrdom  of,  432 

Fuente  di  Gnerrazzar,  219 

Fuller,  Thomas,  cited,  125,   186,  363,  372 

Furchee  cross,  see  Cross 

Fusberta  Joyosa,  sword  of  Charlemagne,  22 1 

Fylfot  cross,  see  Cross 


■Gaddi,  Agnolo,  96 

Galilee  bell,  the,  290 

Galla   Placidia,  story  of,    156,  157  ;  coins  of, 

154.  157 
Galla  tribes,  9 

Galle,  Johann  Gottfried,  453 
Gama,  Vasco  da,  454 
Gamaliel,  185 
Gardiner,   Colonel  James,  story  of  conversion 

of,  III 
Gaily,  Rev.  Alfred,  in 
Gaiidentius,  Bishop  of  Brescia,  240 
Gauls,  coins  of  the,  27 
Geabritas,  King  of  the  Turks,  218 
Geddington  Cross,  281-2S3 
Gelasius  II.,  Pope,  240 

Saint,  the  Sacramentary  of,  399,  426 

George,  Saint,  cross  of,  see  Cross 

Germanus,   Patriarch   of  Constantinople,    354, 

473 

Gestas,  see  Thieves 

Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman   Em- 
pire, cited,  103,  105 

Gibbons,  Grinling,  287 

Gideon,  number  of  his  men,  60 

Gilead,  the  Balm  of,  470 

Giotto,  ,  181,  208,  412 

Giovanni,  Cardinal,  147 

da  Pisa,  207 

Oiraldus  Cambrcnsis,  247,  248 


Gitche  River,  9 

Gladstone,  Hon.  William  E.,  313 

Gloucester,  market  cross  at,  311 

Gnossos,  22 

Goar,  Jacques,  Rituale  Gmeoruin  by,  354 

Goddard,  Dr.,  297,  298 

Godefroi,  ,  105 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  King  of  Jerusalem,  356, 

358,  365,  3S7 
Godric,  Abbot  of  Croyland,  278 
Goerres,  Dr..  cited,  413 
Golasecca,  cemetery  at,  25 
Golden     Legend,     the,     128,    23S  ;     see   also 

Legenda  Aurea 
Golden  Rose,  consecration  of  the,  139 
Golgotha,  legendary  origin  of  name,  85 
Gonzaga,  Anne  de.  Princess  Palatine,  122 
Granadilla,  the,  101-103 
Grant,  Dr.,  cited,  401 
Gratianus,  coins  of,  156,  378 
Great  Britain,   293,  305,   326,   346,   3S7,  388, 

424 

burial  customs  in. 


Church,  the,  324,   354, 
425,  426,  431  ;  cross,  see 


240,  243. 


John,  the  legend  of, 


Greece,  the  cross  in, 

335  ;  394 
Greek,  art,   173,  177  ; 

3_57,  371.418,  419, 

Cross 
Gregory  the  Great,   Pope,  170,  235, 

251.  253,  371 

II.,  Pope,  136,  184,  399 

XI.,  Pope,  296 

Nazianzen,  Saint,  439 

Saint,  cited,  55,  322,  41S  ;  the  Aniiphony 

of.  399 

of  Tours  (Bishop),  170,  176 

Gretser,  Jac,    cited,    156,    165,   353,   376-37S 

et  passim 
Grey,  Lady  Jane,  303 

Dr.,  cited,  44S 

Grindal,  Edmund,  305 
Gualberto  (Gualbert),  i 

409 
Guernsey,  Island  of,  338 
Guevara,  Bishop  of  Mondonedo,  73 
Guillim,  John,  cited,  360,  361,  363,  369 
Guiscard,  Robert,  35S 
Guise,  Henry,  Duke  of,  334 
Gundulf,  442 


H 


Habibus,  76 

Hacon,  King,  29 

Hadrian,  Emperor,  114,  157,  181,  190 

Hadur,  Scandinavian  deity,  94 

Hagenbach,  K.,  438 

"  Hagoday,"  the  knocker,  290 

Hailes,  Lord,  456 

Hales,  Adam  de,  232 

Hall,  Bishop,  74,  225 

Halle,  Francis,  Archbishop  of  Narbonne,  236 

Hammond,  Dr.,  cited,  421,  422 

J/andlwok  of  English  Ecclesiology,  202,    261 

Harding,  John,  cited,  387 

Harold,  Saxon  Knig  of  England,  38S 

Hastings,  the  battle  of,  388 

Ilea,  Assyrian  deity,  16 


Index 


48: 


Headstone  crosses,  stv  Cross 
Heemskerk,  Martin,  the  cross  of,  272,  274 
Helen,  Saint,  tlie  Black  Rood  of,  457 
Helena,  (Saint),  Empress,  legend  of  discovery 

of  The  Cross  by,  87-93,  lU,  HQ.  122,  123 

-126,  176,  205,  3qS 
Heliogabalus,  Emperor,  136 
Heloise,  256,  335 

Henians,  Mrs,.    IFood  Walk,  cited,  loi,  103 
Henry  I.,  of  England,  380 
H.,  of  England,  loy,  332 

UI..  of  Etigland,  28g,  296,  311,  315,  331, 

361,  380,  468 

ni.,  (Valois),  of  France,  334 

IV.,    (Bolingbroke),    of    England,    277, 

297.  319 

IV.,  of  France,  436 

VI.,  of  England,  122,  283,  297,  298,  315, 

374,  422,  436 

VII.  of  England,  123,  283,  438 

VIII.   of  England,   291,   301,   302,    389, 

402,  403,  457 
Hera,  the  Assyrian  Venus,  16 
Heraclius,   Emperor,    92,    93,   120,    121,   380, 

384.  471 
Heraldry,  the  cross  in,  360  //" 
Herbert,  George,  cited,  225,  323 
Herculaneum,  467 
Hermes, 6, 7,  181,182,239;  statues  of,  changed 

to  wayside  crosses,  324 
Heme,  457 
Herod  the  Great,  189 
Hesus,  one  of  the  Druidical  triad,  30 
Hesychius,  467 
Hexam,  the  battle  of,  387 
Heylin,  Peter,  cited,  2S3-2S7,  445 
Hiera,  the,  370 
Hiei'itrgia  Anglicana,  246 
Hilarius,  Pope,  251 
Hilary,  Saint,  52 

Hilsey,  )ohn,  Kishop  of  Rochester,  302,  410 
Hindoo  triad,  the,  13 
Hipparchns,  76 

Hohenlohe  Siegmaringen  crucifi.x,  the,  173 
Holbein,  Hans,  133 
Holinshed,  Raphael.  412 
Holland,  John,  462 
Hollis,  Thomas,  309 

Sir  William,  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  309 

Holy  Family,  legend  of  the,  130,  131 

Holy  Rood  Abbey,  legend  of  founding  of,  405 

Homilies,  the  Saxon,  399 

Honorius,  Emperor,  157,  243,  289,  378 

Hook,  Dr.,  cited,  301 

Hooker,  Richard,  cited,  195,  323 

Hope,  Beresford,  248,  253 

Hopkins,  Bishop,  pastoral  .staff  of,  248 

Horn, .  305 

Hortense,  Queen,  123 
Houbigant,  Charles  Fran9ois,  cited,  20 
Hubert.  Saint,  the  legend  of,  405,  406 
Hugh,  of  France.  123 

Saint,  of  Lincoln,  81,  82 

Hugo,  of  Avalon,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  331,  332 
Humboldt,  Baron,  cited.  451-454 
Humettee  cross,  see  Cross 
Hungary,  218,  219,  230 


Huss,  John,  398 

Hyperdulia,  the  worship  of,  400 

I 

Iceland,  the  cross  in.  29 

Iconoclasm,  of   the  eighth  century,  380  ;   Puri- 
tan,  446,  447 
Iconostasis,  rood-screen  of  the  Eastern  Churcli 

195 
Ignatius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  434 
Imbert,  Prior  of  Gascony,  400,  401 
Ina,  King,  289 
India,  the  cross  in,  ()  ff :  394 
Indians,  North  American,  customs  of,  45 
Ingulphus,  321 
Inhabited  cross,  see  Cross 
Innocent  II..  Pope,  230 

III.,  Pope,   176,  372 

v..  Pope,  147 

Inquisition,  the  standard  of  the  Spanish,  393 
lona,  headstone  crosses  in  island  of,  336,  337 
Ionia,  375 
Ireland,    the    cross    in,    32,    267,    268,     339 ; 

miraculous  crucifixes  in,  404,  405 
Irenjeus.  cited,  72 
Irene.  Empress.  123 
Isiac  mysteries,  the,  279 
Isidore,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Seville,  240,  371 
Isis,  Egyptian  deity,  6,  190,  279,  474 
Italy,  the  cross  in,  22^,  328,  387 
Itziexes,  tribe  in  Yucatan,  41 

J 

Jacobites,  rites  of  the,  151,  152,  425 

Jainas,  the,  10,  11 

Jama,  10 

James  1.,  of  England,  291,  307,  315,  380,  436 

II.,  of  England.  438 

III.,  of  Scotland,  248 

IV.,  of  Scotland,  301 

Saint,  crucifixion  of,  76  ;    cross  of,  367, 

36S  ;  Order  of,  368 

Jameson,  Anna,  cited,  82 

Januarius,  .Saint,  404 

Japan,  the  cross  in,  14 

Jarrow,  monastery  of  S.  Paul  at,  55 

Java,  the  cross  in,  13 

Jay,  John,  merchant,  374 

Jericho,  470 

Jerome,  Saint,  cited,  50,  99,  113,  131,  423 

Jerusalem,  109,  in,  116,  117,  120,  180,  185, 
230,  356.  365.  398,  407.  429,  470,  471 

Jerusalem  cross,  the,  see  Cross 

Jesuni,  Japanese  ceremony,  459,  460 

Jewell,  Bishop,  cited,  1S5,  304,  305,  445 

Jews,  the,  customs  of,  67-70;  117,  135;  ac- 
cused of  crucifying  children,  81,  82 

Joan  of  Arc,  332 

Jocelin,  Bishop,  311 

John,  Saint,  179-181,  183,  :S6,  331,  34S.  378 

Baptist,  Saint,  banner  of,  356  ;  in  Greek 

art,  431 

Saint,  of  Beverley,  standard  of,  3S8 

Casimir,  King  of  Poland,  122 

the  Constant,  of  Saxony,  414 

of  England.  315 


484 


Index 


John,  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  296,  334 

VII.,  Pope,   183 

de  Slieppy,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  245 

lohnson.  Dr.  Samuel,  touched  for  the  "King's 

Evil,"  438 
Jolly,  Bishop,  of  Scotland,  331 
Jonas,  Bishop  of  Orleans,  400 
Jonsoii,    Ben.   Every   Man   in    his   Humour, 

cited,  94,  3S2 
Jordanus  of  Germany,  147 
Jormundgaiul,  the  serpent  of  Midgard,  267 
Joseph   of   Arimathea,    as  represented  in  art, 

129;   traditionary  mission  of,  to  Britain,  387 
Jovian,  Emperor,  156,  378,  383,  384 
Joyeuse,  sword  of  Charlemagne,  123 
yitih\  or  rood-loft,  199 
jfulian  the  Apostate,   Emperor,   90,   165,  383, 

398.  438 

Pope,  183 

Saint,  cross  of,  3(16 

Juliana,  the  Anchoress  of  Norwich,  179 
Julius  II.,  Pope,  139 

Saint,  172 

Jupiter  Ammon,  iS3 
Justin.  76 

Emperor,  251 

Justinian,    Emperor,    189,  197,   207,  257,  357, 

378,  379.  384 
Justinianus  II.,  380 
Justinus,  see  Thieves 

K 

Kalinski,  cited,  77 

Kamchatka,  the  cross  in,  15 

Keble,  John,  Christian   Year,  cited,  326 

Kelmainham,  jiriory  of,  124 

Kemp,  Thomas,  Bishop  of  London,  296 

Kenneth,  of  Scotland,  335 

Kent,  Earl  of,  332 

Kenulph,  Abbot  of  Croyland,  321 

Khorsabad.  7,  16 

Kilcullem,  Old,  memorial  cross  in,  527 

Kilnsea,  cross  of,  277 

King,  Dr.,  153 

John,  Bishop  of  London,  307 

"  King's  Evil,"    touching  for  the,   origin   of, 

435.  436  ;  ceremony  of,  43S 
Kirkbradden.  memorial  cross  at,  279 
Knight,  Wyllyam,  Bishop  of  Bath,  319 
Knights  of  Bath,  422 

Hospitallers,  the,  321,  3G8 

of  S.  John,  472 

Templars,  the,    121,   257,  321,   356,  357, 

367,458 
Knox,  John,  277,  446 
Krishna,  10 


Labarte,  Handbook  of  Arts  of  the  Middle  Ages 
and  Renaissance y  by.  253 

Lalmruiii,  the,  C'onstanline's  vision  of,  104  ; 
description  of,  104  ;  adopted  by  the  Roman 
army,  102,  106;  107,  156,  i8g,  226,  259, 
383  ;   final  disposition  of,  384  | 


Laborde,  Count  de.  253 

Lactantius,  De  Mortihus  Persecutor ttm ,  cited, 

107 ;   156,  439 
Landeyda,  the,  ancient  standard  of  Denmark, 

385 
Landmark  crosses,  see  Cross 
Lanfranc,  Archbishop,  244 
Lao  Tse,  the,  10 
Lao-tseu,  the,  13 
Lateau,  Louisa,  of  Belgium,  413 
Lateran.  Council  of,  230 
Latimer,  Bishop,  304 
Latin  Church,  the,  324,  354,  355,  418 
Latria,  the  worship  of,  399,  400 
Laud,  Archbishop,  235,  445 
Laurentius,  436 
Legenda  A  urea  (Golden   Legend),  by  Jacobus 

de  Voragine,  S3,  98,  128 
Leland,  John,  cited,  319 
Lenni  Lenape,  the,  of  North  America,  45 
Leo,  Emperor,  257 

the  Great,  Pope,  185,  186 

III.,  Pope,  172,  251 

IV.,  Pope,  207,  230 

IX.,  Pope,  synod  of,  244 

X.,  Pope,  139 

the  Isaurian,  Emperor,  442 

Leonidas,  66 
Lepsius,  Dr.  Karl,  47 

Le  Saur, ,  287 

L'Estrange,  ,  cited,  439 

Leuci,  the,  27 

Lilly,  A/exander  and  Camfaspe,  cited,  95 

Lincoln,  Bishop  of,  232 

Lindsay,  Lord,  cited,  153,  411,  412 

Lingard,  John,  399 

Lioba,  ,Saint,  397 

Lipsius,  Justus,  66,  353 

Liiuus,  the,  238 

Loki,  Scandinavian  deity,  94,  267 

Lollianus,  76 

London,  294  ff,  29S,  307,  374, 

Longfellow,  H.  \V.,  cited,  29, 

Longinus,  Saint,  story  of,  128 

,  268 

Lorraine,  Cardinal  of,  334 

cross,  see  Cross 

Losinga,  Bishop,  321 
Lothaire,  397 

Lothario,  cross  of,  174,  175,  177 
Lotharius,  signet  of,  220 
Louis  VI.,  of  France,  331 
VII.,  of  France,  389 

IX.,   Saint,   of   France,    121,    331,    436, 

471 

XL,  of  France,  458 

le  Deltonnaire,  of  France,  321,  397 

le  Gros,  of  h  ranee,  331 

Louterell  Psalter,  the,  245 

Lovat,  Matthew,  self-crucifixion  of,  80,  81 

Lowry,  Robert,  ill 

Lucca,  184,  386 

Lucius,  King  of  Britain,  361 

I  .ucv,  Elizabeth,  301 

I.u<lovicus,  331 

Luit])rand,  Bishop  of  Cremona,  244 

Luther,  Martin,  224,  225,  443 


410 
lOI 


Index 


485 


M 


Mabillon,  Jean,  256 

Macarius,  Hislio|i  of  Jerusalem,  go,  Ii6,  118 

Macihiff's  Cross,  277 

Maclean's  Cross,  337 

Magellan,  Fernando,  454 

Magiclcr,  Saint,  277 

Magri,  Jliiivlfxicon  of,  240 

Maiinn,  Lord,  138 

iMainionides,  66.  77,  389 

Maitland,  C,  cited,  155,  434 

Malachy,  Saint,  248 

Malaga,  407,  408 

Malcolm  Cantnore,  King  of  Scotland,  276,  277, 
362,  370,  456 

Malik-el-Camel,  Sultan,  120 

Malmesbury,  market  cross  at,  311,  315;  Ab- 
bey, 123 

Maltese  cross,  see  Cross 

Mamertius,  Bishop  of  Vienna,  322 

Man,  Isle  of,  crosses  in,  267,  275,  279 

Manchester,  Earl  of,  446 

Mandeville,  Sir  John,  cited,  94,  469 

Manich.vans,  the,  443 

Mansfield  of  Sicily.  362 

Mantegna.  Carlo,  180 

Manual  of  Vork,  121 

Manuel  Comnenus,  Emperor.  3S9 

Marceus  and  Marcellainus,  crucifixion  of,  76 

Marcillac,  churchyard  cross  at,  348 

Margaret  of  Anjou,  291 

daughter  of  Henry  VII  ,  301 

Saint,  of  Cortona,  409,  410 

Saint,   wife  of   Malcolm  Canmore.    314. 

362,  456 

Margaritone,  176 

Mark,  Saint,  festival  of,  322 

Market  crosses,  see  Cross 

Marriott,  Rev.  John,  cited,  426 

Martene,  E.,  259 

Martiall,  J.,  cited.  399 

Martin.  Saint,  the  friars  of,  295 

II.,  Pope,  123 

Martina,  Saint,  335 

Martyr,  Justin,  46,  48,  52,  58,  72  et passim 

I'eter,  445 

Mary,  Queen  of  England,  234,  302,  303,  305 

Queen  of  Scots,  332,  333 

Massinger,  P.,  Busliful  Lovers,  cited,  3S2 
Mathews,  Hugh, '404 
Matilda,  of  Scotland,  3S8 

wife  of  William  of  Normandy,  329 

Maturus,  Saint,  243 

Maud,  wife  of  William  de  Albini,  435 

Maur,   Raban,  acrostic  of,  464 

Maury,  Alfred,  412 

Maxentius,  104,  205 

Maxiniian,  Emperor,  76 

Maximianus.  L5ishop.  207 

Mayence,  Council  of,  256.  323,  371,  464 

Mazois,  C.  F.,  cited,  155 

Medici,  the,  arms  of,  466 

Medicis,  Catherine  <le.  334 

Melanchthon,  Philip,  443 

Memorial  crosses,  see  Cross 

Mendoza,  Cardinal,  136 


Mercury,  see  Hermes 

Merry  Dc-dl  of  Edmonton,  the,  cited,  325 

Mesopotamia,  the  cross  in,  19 

Methodius,  Saint,  354 

Meursius,  jan,  257 

Mews,  Bishop,  246 

Mexico,  the  cross  in,  34-41  ;  381 

Micael,  (Jiuseppe.  407,  408 

Michael,  Saint,  385 

Ducas.  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  2[8 

Michaelis,  Johann,  468 

Midas,  King  of  Phrygia,  21 

Midgard,  267 

Mill,  Jacob  de,  473 

Mills,  Charles.  322 

Mihine  cross,  see  Cross 

Mimung,  the  sword  of  Siegfried,  222 

.Minucius,  432 

Mishna,  the.  67,  68 

Mistletoe,  legends  of  the,  31,  94 

Mistia,  Archl>ishop  of,  cited,  419 

Mixtecas,  the.  of  Alexico.  36 

Mjolnir.  the  hammer  of  Thor,  28,  267 

Moerl,  Marie  de,  412,  413 

Moisac,  the  ritual  of,  426 

Molanus  (Vermeulen,  Jan),  177 

Moline  cross,  see  Cross 

Monasterljoice,  crosses  at,  270 

Mondonedo,  Bishoi)  of.  73 

Monograms,  heathen  and  Christian.  iSS-igo. 

324,  373.  374.  385 
Monophysites,  the,  418 
Monstrance,  forms  of  the,  212 
Montague,  Bishop,  195 

j.  A.,  466 

Montaperto.  the  battle  of,  386 

Monlc-di-J'ieta,  the,  459 

Monza,  172.  179 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  298,  332,  473 

Morglay,  sword  of  Sir  Bevis.  221 

Mosaics.  138.  158,  159,  161,  163,  166,  172,  183, 

i8g,  251,  270 
Mosen,  Julius,  poem  of.  loi 
Mound   temples,    in  Great  Britain,  32,  34,  45  ; 

in  North  America,  43-45 
Mousewell,  Thomas,  437 
Mullooly,  the  Rev.  Dr.,  183 
Muran,  Saint,  247 
Murtogh,  King  of  Ireland.  124 
Muyscas,  the,  South  American  tribe.  41 
Mycenae,  250 


Nash.    Thomas,    Supplication     to    the   Devil, 

cited,  38 1 
Neale,  the  Rev.  J.  M.,  342 
Neigle.  cross  of,  266 
Neot.  Saint,  456 
Nero,  Emperor,  127,  172 
Nerva,  coins  of,  377 
Nestorians,  the,  210,  211,  401,  421  ;  ritual  of, 

427 
Neville's  Cross,  the  battle  of,  457 
New  England,  the  banner  of,  389-391 
Newman.  Sir  Thomas.  302 
Nic.-ea.  Councils  of,  185,  399,  400 


486 


Index 


Nicaragua,  the  cross  in.  36 

Nicephorus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  251, 

331 

Nicetas,  cited,  52 

Nicholas  IV.,  Pope.  161 

Saint,  of  Tolentino,  410 

Nicodemus,  as  represented  in  Greek  art,  I2g  ; 
traditionary  crucifixes  made  by,  184,  1S5, 
407,  458  ;  the  Gospel ol.  S3_^,  396 

Nicquetus,  g8 

Nigellus,  24S 

Ninus,  64 

Nishet,  Alexander,  cited.  367,  368 

Nisroch,  16,  34,  40 

Nixon,  Strange  Footpost,  cited,  94 

Normandy,  2gi,  337 

North  America,  the  cross  in,  42 

Northallerton,    Battle  of  the  Standard  at,  3S8 

Northampton  Cross,  281 

Northbiiry,  Bishop  of,  296 

Northern  Europe,  the  cross  in,  28^ 

Norwich,  cross  at,  81,  321 

A'oles  and  Queries,  425,  467 

Nowell,  Alexander,  Dean  of  S.  Paul's,  296 


O 


Oak,  tradition  of  the,  95,  96 

Odenheimer,  Bishop,  119 

Odin,  Scandinavian  deity,  28,  2g,  267 

Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  241 

Oge,   Barry,  124 

Ogham  characters,  32 

Oidcastle,  Sir  John,  297 

Oldham,  Bishop,  of  Exeter,  245 

Ontophorion,  the,  370,  371 

Orange,  Council  of,  289 

Oresimus,  Nicolaus.  Bishop  of  Lexoviensis,  376 

Origen,  cited.  50.  52,  113,  189,  433 

Orlando,  the  sword  of,  222 

Orleans,  Council  of.  323 

Ornctes,  a  commander  of  Darius,  66 

Osiris,  Egyptian  deity,  6,  187,  190,  279 

Ossuaries,  25 

Oswald,  the  Saxon,  387 

Otto  of  Bamberg.  Saint,  228 

Ourii|ue,  battle  of,  log,  no 

Oviedo.  384 

Owen,  Saint,  275 

OxfOrii  Glossary  of  Heraldry,  the,  236 

Oxia,  island  of,  215 


Pacific  Islands,  the  cross  in.  45 

Palcsiine,  the  cross  in,  ;g,  109 

Pall  cross,  tlie,  see  Cross 

Pall,  or  pallium,  the.  238,  370 _^ 

I'aniiuiiluin,  the,  133 

Pansa,  house  of,  154 

Papal  cro.ss,  see  Cross 

Paragrus,  76 

Paraguay,  the  cross  in,  42 

Paris,  17,  27,  121,  122,  395,  45S,  471 

AbbO,  80 


Paris,  Matthew,  Si,  120,  130 

the  Pontifical  of.  427 

Parker.  Matthew.   Archbishop  of   Canterbury, 

195.  249,  305.  4" 
Parliament,   the   "Mad,"   296;    acts  of,   307, 

30S,  313,  329 
Paschal  I.,  Pope,  1S4 

II.,  Pope,  124 

Pastoral  staff,  the,  236-249 

Patagonia,  the  cross  in,  42 

Pattee  cross,  see  Cross 

Pateressa,  the,  240 

Patonce  cross,  see  Cross 

Patriarchal  cross,  see  Cross 

Patrick,   Saint,  crosier  of,  247.  248  ;  cross  of, 

3S8 
Paul.  Saint,  74.  185.  260,  293,  425 

v..  Pope,  36 

Paulianus,  443 

Paulicians,  sect  of  the,  441 

Paulinus,  Saint,  Bishop  of  Nola,  cited,  60,  116, 

124,  168,  191,  394,  432 

Bishop  of  Tyre,  193 

Pearce,  Bishop,  468 
Pearson,  Bishop.  59 
Pectoral  cross,  see  Cross 
Pehlevi  characters,  14,  ig 
Pelagiusl.,  Pope,  170,  371 
Pelayo,  of  Spain.  385 
Pendleton,  Dr.,  305 
"  Penitence,  bed  of,"  331 

Pennant,  ,  302 

Pennington,  Isaac,  Lord  Mayor.  307 
Pepin  le  Bref.  Capitulary  of,  3g6 

d'lleristal,  405 

Perambulation  of  boundaries.  322,  323 
Perdiccas,  Persian  commander,  66 
Peri:oniii?n,  the,  176 

Persia,  15,  I20,  3g2 

Perth,  market  cross  at.  314 

Peru,  the  cross  in.  41 

Perugino  (Pietro  Vanucci).  I3g 

Peter.  Saint,    74,  75,  235,  26k   272,    371,  372, 

387,  473 
of  Cluny,  243 

Maityr,  Saint,  146 

Saint,  of  York,  standard  of,  3S8 

Peterborough,  Abbey  of,  278 
Petrobrusiani,  sect  of  the,  443 
Phelonion.  tlie,  371 
Phidon,  of  Argos,  375 
Phildebert,  son  of  Clovis,  45  3 
Philip,  Saint,  378 
the  Fair,  of  France.  121 

II..  of  France,  362 

II.,  of  Spain,  283,  305 

Philippa,  Queen,  of  England,  389 
Philotheiis.  76 

Philpot,  Sir  John,  364 

Phocas,  Flavins,  Emperor.  215,  380 

Phoenicia,  the  cross  in,  20,  21 

Pierce,  Ruth,  story  of,  317 

Pietro  della   P.allude,    Patriarch   of   Jerusalem, 

■47 
Pigafetta.  454 
Pinke,  Dr..  300 
Pinturicchio,  139 


Index 


487 


Pionius,  72 

Pisa,  3S5,  408,  454 

Pius  v.,  Pope,  139 

IX.,  Pope,  139 

Plato,  22 

Pliny,  279 

Plowman,  Piers,  224 

Plutarch,  279 

Poitiers,  the  I'oiitilical  of,  427 

Politus,  3S5 

Pollux,  Julius,  467 

Polycrates,  King  of  Sanios,  65,  66 

Pomniee  cross,  see  Cross 

Pooley,  C,  cited,  319 

Porphyry,  Bishop  of  Gaza,  iig,  226 

Porter,  Sir  Robert  Ker,  15 

Potent  cross,  see  Cross 

Preaching  crosses,  see  Cross 

Prescott,  W.  H.,  cited,  34 

Prester  John,  3S9 

Preston  pans,  314 

Prime,  Dr.  William  C,  cited.  126 

Probus,  Sextus  Petronius,  158 

Processional  crosses,  see  Cross 

Procopius,   354 

Prudentius,  432 

Ptolemy,  coins  of,  108,  188 

Epiphanius,  8 

Soter,  4 

Puritans,  the,  444,  445,  457 


Querini,  Nicolas,  of  Venice,  471 
Quetzalcoatl,  37,  41 
Quiateot,  Mexican  god  of  rain,  40 
Quiriacus,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  go 


R 


Ra,  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  deity,  3,  6,  16 

Raffles,  Sir  Stamford,  13 

"Ragman  Roll,"  the,  456 

Ragnefredus,  Bishop  of  Chartres,  241,  242 

Rameses,  Ig 

Raphael,  208 

Rasles,  Father,  293 

Rebo,  the,  Asiatic  tribe.  18 

Reccesvinthus,  crown  of  King,  219,  220 

Regulus,  66 

Remigius,  Saint,  240 

Resurrection  cross,  Jcy Cross 

Reynolds,  Dr.,  444 

Ribadeneira.  Pedro,  cited,  124,  404 

Richard  of  Pontoise,  Saint,  Si 

Coeur-de-Lion,  224,  332,  35S,  387,  458 

II.,  of  England,  297,  363 

III.,   of    England,    209,    2g8,  300,   301, 

311.  373 
Richter,    G.,    Dissertation   on    the    Saviour  s 

CriiciJixioH,  by,  78,  79 
Ridley,  Bishop,  304,  305 
Rives,  John,  287 

Robin-redbreast,  legend  of  the,  100 
Robinson,  Dr.,  Researches,  116,  118 


Roch,  Saint,  414 

Koclictte,  Raoul,  172 

Rock,  Dr.  Daniel,  cited,  124,  238,  371 

Rogation  Days,  322,  323 

Konianus,  76 

Rome,  26,  119,  136,  159,  161,   166,   181,   183, 

191,  230,  263,  264,  335,  339,  344,  394,  409, 

432.  470,  471 
Roncesvalles,  the  pass  of,  224 
Rood,  the  black,  of  Scotland,  456,  457;  of  S. 

Helen's,   in   Abingdon,    457;    of    Slelrose, 

1S6,  45S 
Rood-screens,  lg3-204 
RosenmiiUer,  470 
Rosetta  Stone,  the,  8 
Rudolph,  of  Hapsl)urg,  109 
Rufinus,  cited,  116,  157 
Runic  characters,  28 
Ruskin,  John,  cited,  402 
Russia,  the  cross  in,  263,  337.  357,  393,  431 


•Sabbaoth,  the  gnostic,  1S2 

Sabinus,  King  of  Bulgaria,  184 

Saillans,  churchyard  cross  at,  346 

S.  .\lbans,  igg 

S.  Andrew's  cross,  see  Cross,  Saltire 

S.  Denis,  the  Abbey  of,  395 

S.  Germain,  122 

S.  Guthlake,  Abbey  of,  278 

S.  John's  College,  Oxford,  246 

S.  Laura,  Convent  of,  357 

S.  Paul's  Cross,  see  Cross,  Preaching,  410 

S.  Projet,  churchyard  cross  at,  348 

Saladin,  120 

Salamis,  coins  of,   15 

.Salisbury,  market  cross  at,  315 

Salmasius,  353 

Saltire  cross,  see  Cross 

.Samaria,  coins  of,  59 

Sammosata,  crucifixions  at,  76 

Samsi-Vul  IV.,  King  of  Assyria,  250 

Samson,  Saint,  Archbishop  of  Vork,  237 

Samuel,  Bishop  of  Dublin.  230,  238 

Sanctuary  crosses,  see  Cross 

Sanctuary,  the  right  of,  28q  ff 

Sanderson,  Robert,  457 

Sandys,  Edwin.  305 

Sarto,  Andrea  del,  208 

"  Sarum  use,"  the,  235,  244,  426 

Sataneal,  the  Prince  of  Evil,  442 

Sawastika,  the,  11 

Scandinavia,  deities  of,  28^ 

Schliemann,  Dr.  Heinrich,  250 

Scotch  ritual,  the,  427 

Scotland,    30,    1S6,    265,    361,    362,    3S5,    3S8, 

405,  445>  45& 
Scott,  Sir  Walter,   cited,  Marmioti,  312,  313, 

325,  326  ;    The  Eve  of  S.  John,  1S6,  45S, 

459;    The  Monastery,  457 
Scourging,  laws  concerning,  68 
Scythia,  Queen  of.  crucified,  65 
Seals  of   merchants  in  the  Middle  Ages,  372, 

373 
Semiramis,  Queen  of  Assyria,  64 
Sempach,  battle  of,  272 


488 


Index 


Septimus  Severus,  Emperor.  i8i 

Serapis,  Egyptian  deity,  4,  214,  474 

Sergius  I.,  Pope,  1S6 

Severius,  Bishop  of  Cologne,  239 

Shakesijeare,    cited,    As    You   Like   It,    382 ; 

Cymbeline,    Hamlet.   224,434;   Henry  IV., 

31Q-320,    3S2  ;    Love's  Labour  V  Losi.  92  ; 

Macbeth,  276,436,  437  ;  Merchant  of  Venice, 

325 
Shalmaneser,  17 
Shari,   Assyrian  tribe,  l3 
Shaw,  Dr.,  300,  301 
Shelton,  John,  cited,  291,  382 
Shore,  Jane.  29S.  300 
Shrewsbury,  weeping  cross  at,  329 
Sibylla,  prophecy  of.  S7 
Sicily,  the  cross  in.  27 
Siegfried,  the  swords  of,  222 
Sigilhim,  or  the  sign  of  the  cross,  434 
Simon,  Saint,  of  Trent,  Si,  82 
SinJoiie,  the,  1 33 
Siva,  the  Destroyer,  9,  10,  13,  425 
Sixtus  III.,  Pope,  159 
Smith,  Sir  Sidney,  458 
.Socrates,  116 
Sophronicus,    Patriarch    of     Jerusalem,     iSo, 

398 
South  America,  the  cross  in,  417^,  328 
Southey,  cited,  79,  82,  387 
Sozomen,  116,  205,  418 
Spain,     185,    261,    32S,    384,    3S5,    392,    45S, 

,  470 

Spire  and  Gable  crosses,  jtVjCross 

Standard  crosses,  see  Cross 

Standard,  of  Great  Britain.  388  ;  of  New  Eng- 
land, 389-391  ;  of  the  American  Colonies, 
3gi  ;  of  the  United  States.  392  :  of  the 
Spanish  Inquisition,  393  ;  Battle  of  the,  see 
Northallerton 

Standards  of  the  cross,  miraculous.  384-386 

Stebbing,  Dr.  H..  Archdeacon  of  Wilts,  317 

Stephaton,  or  Calpurinus,  129.  268 

Stephen,  King  of  Hungary.  230 

.Steward,  James,  of  Scotland,  456 

Stewart,  John,  470 

Stigmata,  the,  instances  of,  411-414 

Story,  Bishop,  311 

Stourhead,  market  cross  at,  3T5 

Stow,  John,  cited,  202,  305,  363,  407,  436 

Street  crosses,  see  Cross 

Strickland,   Agnes.  456 

Sudarium,  the,  127,  133,  245 

Suicer,  Johann,  257,  431 

Sulpicius  Severus,  nb,  394 

Siiperhunierale,  the,  370 

Suppedaneiim,  the,  73,  98,  173,  209,  357 

Sussex,   Earl  of,  410,  411 

Sweden,  the  cross  in,  28 

Swift.   Dean.  124 

Switzerland,  wayside  crosses  in,  326 

Swords,  famous,  123,  221-224  ;  use  of  cross- 
hilted,   333 

Sylvester  I.,  Pope,  371 

II.,  Pope,  230 

Symbolism  in  ait,  47-56;  in  architecture,  355; 
of  colors.  394  ;  in  heraldiy,  364-371  ;  of 
sign   of   the  cross,  41S  ;  of  the  thorns,  471- 


472  ;  of  the  unicorn, 242,  243  ;  of  vestments, 

370-372 
Symmachus,  Pope,  207 
.Syracuse,  coins  of,  27 
Syria,  consecration  crosses  in.  258  ;  manner  of 

signing  the  cross  in.  427 
Syrio-Jacobite  ritual,  the,  427 


Tancred.  of  Sicily,  224 

Tarlati,  Guido,  tomb  of,  207 

Tarquin,  66 

Tau  cross,  the,  see  Cross 

TaitropHa,  the,  294 

Tavernier,  Jean  Baptiste,  12 

Taylor.  Jeremy,  cited,  433 

'Terminalia.  the,  322 

Terramares,  the.  23,  26 

Tertulliau,  cited,  58,  72.  189.  423,  428,  432, 
468 

Tharnis,  one  of  the  Druidical  triad,  30 

Theodora,  Empress.  1S9.  T97 

Theodore.  Abbot  of  Cmyland.  277 

Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the  Peni- 
tential of.  434 

I,.  Pope.  434 

Theodoret.  cited.  116 

Theodosius.  Emperor.  156.  157,  214,  219.  257, 

289,  35f>,  378,  384 
Theophylact,  Saint.  113 
Thierry.  J.  N..  387 
Thieves,  the  two,  legend  of,  130-132 
Thomas.  Saint.  37,  73 

Aquinas,  Saint,  146.  243.  408,  435,  463 

a  Becket,  Saint.  232.  236.  238 

of  Malabar,  Saint.  165.  404 

Thor.  Scandinavian  deiiy.  28.  267 
Thorns,  the  crown  of,  46S-474 
Thoth,  8 

Tiber,  the  river.  396 
Tiberias,  battle  of.  120 
Tiberius.  Emperor.  127 
Tiglath  Pileser,  16 
Timotheus  and  Maura,  crucified,  76 
Title,  the,  of  the  Cross,  see  Cross 
Titus,  see  Thieves 
Tizona,  the  sword  of  the  Cid,  221 
Toledo,  219,  230.  240,  458 
!   Tohecs,  the,  of  Mexico,  39,  41 
Tonsure,  forms  of,  473.  474 
Tooker.  Dr.  William.  436 
Toulouse,  Bernard,  Count  of,  434 
Tours,  Council  of,  193,  205,  208,  209 
Trajan,  Emperor  of  Rome,  406 
Tree  of  Life,  legend  of,  85-87 
Trent,  Council  of,  400 
Triad,  the  Druidical,  30 
Tripoli.    120 

Trogoz.  Don  Rodrigo,  333 
Troy,  21.  250 

"  Trullo,"  Council  in,  170,  172,  429 
Trypho,  the  Jew,  46,  52 
Tucca,  a  vestal  virgin,  396 
Turkey.  134,  392,  393 
Tvaslitri,  10 
Tyler.  Wat,  363 


Index 


489 


Tyiulale,  William,  298 
Types  of  Christ,  see  Christ 
Tyre,  20,  120,  121,  193 

U 

Unicorn,  the,  symbolism  of,  242,  243 

Upton,  ,  361 

Urban  IV.,  Pope,  2t)6,  362 


Valens,  Emperor,  157 
Valentinian,  Emperor.  156,  378 

III.,  Emperor,  138 

Valentinianus,  Emperor,  156 

III.,  Emperor,  157,  37b 

Valiancy,  Charles,  32 
Vallombrosa,  the  Order  of.  240,  409 
Vanni,  Francesco,  408 

Varus,  66 

Vasey,  Bishop,  of  Exeter,  245 

Vatican,  the,  igi,  207,  208.  356,  467 

Velletri,   170 

Venantius  Fortunatus,  170 

Venice,  80,  81,  3S6,  3S7,  471 

Venus,  temples  of,  114,  136,  138 

Veni  icon,  the.  127 

Veronica,  Saint,  legend  of,  127,  128,  184 
Vertot,   Rene  de,  cited,  121 
Vertue,   George.  2S1 
Vespasian,   Emperor,  lyo 
Vespucci,  Amerigo,  453 
Vestments,  ecclesiastical,  370-372 

Vexilla  Regis,  36 

Vexilliim,  the,  245 
Vibius  Pansa,  26 
Victor,   Bishop  of  Amaterna,  76 
Vieimus.  see  Thieves 
Vienna,  the  Pontifical  of,  427 
Vigean,  Saint.  266 
Vigilius,  Pope,  170 
Vinciana,  Saint,  335 
Vishnu,   10,  425 

Vladimir,  Russian  Emperor,  228 
Volcae  Tectosages,  the,  27 
Voltaire,  124 

Volto  Santo,  the,  of  Lucca,  184,  185 
Voragine,  Jacobvis  de,  I.egenda  Aurea,  by,  83, 
176 

W 

Wagram,  battle  of,  123 
Walcott.  M.  E.  C,  cited,  371 

Waldeck,  ,  40 

Waldemar,  the  Viclorius,  of  Denmark.  385 

II.,  of  Denmark,  254 

Wales,  crosses  in,  265,  275  ;  coronet  of  Prince 

of,  2lS 
Wallachia,  wayside  crosses  in,  324 
Walpole,   Horace.  97,  2S1 
Waltham  Cross,  281-2S3 
Walton,  Izaak.  225 
Walworth,  Sir  William,  363 


?62, 


Wandering  Jew.  legend  of  the,  130 
Warbeck,   Perkin.  2gl 
Warham,  Archbishop,  301 
Warton,  Thomas,  97 
Warwick,  Earl  of,  297,  298 

Guy,  Erie  of,  366 

Washington,  George.  392 

Watson,  Dr.,  305 

Wayside  crosses,  see  Cross 

Wearmouth.  55,  237 

Webb,  Benjamin,  cited,  409 

W'eeping  crosses,  see  Cross 

Wells,  market  cross  at,  319 

Werinus,  Archbishop  of  Cologne,  243 

Westminster  Abbey,   217,  245,  281,  291, 

432,  457 
Wheatley,  Charles,  cited,  425,  429 
White,  Bishop,  249 
Whitehall,  fate  of  cross  at,  445 
Whittier,  John  G. ,  cited,  lor,  294 
Whittingham,  Catherine.  3S9 

William,  Dean  of  Durham,  389 

Wickwane,  William,  Archbishop  of  York,  232 

Wieland,  222 

Wilfrid,  Saint,  of  Ripon,  3S8 

Wilkinson,  Sir  Gardner,  cited,  iS,  250 

William   the   Conqueror,    244,   276,   329,   35S, 

3S7,  388,  433,  45S,  467 

III.,  of  England,  refuses  to  touch  for  the 

"King's  Evil,"  437 

• — ■ —  the  Lion,  of  Scotland,  314 
of  Norwich,  Saint.  Si,  82 

Rufus.  King  of  England,  243 

of  Wykeham.  staff  of.  245 

Winchelsey,  Archbishop,  232 
Winchester  Butter  Cross,  312 
Winkelried.  Arnold  von,  272 
Winthrop,  Governor,  391 
Wiseman,  Dr.,  437 

Wittich,  222 

Wolman.  Dr..  Dean  of  Wells,  319 
Wolsey,  Cardinal,  234,  407 
Wren,  .Sir  Christopher,  202 
Wulstan,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  244 
Wymondham,  Priory  of,  435 


Xaca  Japonicus,  Japanese  sect.  14 
Xavier.  Saint,  History  of  Chyist,  by,  131 
Xer.\es.  66 


Y 


York.  Duke  of.  301  ;   Manual  of,  121 
Yuaricks,  kingdoms  of  the,  9 
Yucatan,  native  hymns  of,  39 


Zaccheus,  185 

Zacharias,  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  120 

Zapotecas,  the,  of  Mexico,  36 


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